European Spiritual Life in the 19th Century
GA 325
16 May 1921, Dornach
Translated by H. Collison
Lecture II
I have tried to show how about the middle of last century a radical transformation took place in spiritual life, and how moreover the peculiar configuration of the nineteenth century thought and the spiritual life in general that underwent this transformation can be traced back to another crucial turning point in the west which we have to look for in the fourth century A.D.
Now it might at first sight appear as if we were trying to show too close a connection between two periods that are so very widely separated in point of time. But this very thought will serve to call attention to certain interconnections in the history of humanity. To-day we will begin where we left off yesterday, with the downfall of ancient culture and of the Roman empire. We drew attention to a distinguishing feature of that time. We placed before our souls two representative personalities; one of them was Augustine, who grew entirely out of the South-West; and we compared them with another personality, that of the Gothic translator of the Bible, Wulfila, and with the spiritual stream out of which Wulfila sprang.
We have to be quite clear that Augustine was altogether the child of the conditions which had developed in the south-western parts of the European-African civilization of the day. At that time men who sought a higher culture only found it through contact with the philosophy, literature, art and science which had for a long time been pursued in a certain upper level of society. We even have to think of Greek culture as the possession of an upper class which relegated its more menial work to slaves. And still less can we think of Roman culture without widespread slavery. The life of this culture depended upon its possessors being remote from the thought and feeling prevailing in the masses. But one must not think that there was therefore no spiritual life in the masses. There was an exceptionally strong spiritual life among them. This was of course derived more from the native stock left behind at an earlier stage of evolution than that of the upper class, but it was nevertheless a spiritual life. History knows very little about it, but it was very like what was carried into the southern parts of Europe by the barbarian tribes, forced to migrate by the forward pressure of the Asiatic hordes. We must try to form a concrete idea of it.
Take, for instance, the people who over-ran the Roman Empire—the Goths, the Vandals, the Lombards, the Herules. Before the migrations had begun, thus before the fourth century A.D. which is for us such an important turning-point, these men had spiritual life away in the East which culminated in a certain religious insight, in certain religious ideas, which pervaded everything; and the effects of these experiences influenced every aspect of daily life. Before the migrations began these people have had a long period of settled life. It was while they were thus settled that they first experienced the southern oriental peoples, from whom the Indian, Persian and succeeding cultures sprang, had experienced at a much earlier time; they experienced what we can call a religion which was closely connected with the blood relationships of the people. It is only through spiritual science that this can be observed, but it is also echoed in the sagas and myths I lived in these peoples. What they worshipped were the ancestors of certain families. But these ancestors first began to be worshiped long after they had passed away, and this worship was in no way based upon abstract ideas, but upon what was instinctively experienced as dreamlike clairvoyant ideas, if I can use the expression without causing misunderstanding. For there were certain ideas which arose in quite another way from the way our ideas of to-day are formed. When we have ideas nowadays our soul life comes into play more or less independently of our bodily constitution. We no longer feel the seething of the body. These people had a certain intensive inward sense that in what took place in their bodies all sorts of cosmic mysteries were active. For it is not only in the chemical retorts that cosmic processes work according to law, but in the human body also. And just as to-day, by means of the processes which take place in their retorts chemists seek with their abstract reason to understand the laws of the universe, so these men too tried through what they had experienced inwardly, through their own organism, whose inner processes they felt, to penetrate into the mysteries of the cosmos. It was entirely an inner experience that was still closely bound up with ideas arising in the body. And out of these ideas which were called forth by what we might describe as the inward seething of the organism, there developed the pictorial imaginations which these men connected with their ancestors. It was their ancestors whose voices they heard for centuries in these dream formations. Ancestors were the rulers of people living in quite small communities, in village tribal communities.
These tribes had still this kind of ancestor-worship, which had its life in dreamlike ideas, when they pressed forward from the east of Europe towards the west. And if we look back to the teachers and the priests of these peoples we find that they were advanced spirits whose foremost task was to interpret what the individual saw in his dream-pictures, albeit dream-pictures which he experienced in his awake consciousness. They were interpreters of what the individual experienced. And now the migrations began. During the period of the migrations it was their greatest spiritual consolation that they had this inner clairvoyant life which was interpreted by their priests. This spiritual life was reflected in sagas which have been handed down, notably in the Slav world, and in these sagas you will find confirmation of what I have just briefly outlined.
Now shortly after the end of the fourth century these tribes settled down again. Some of them were absorbed into the peoples who had already for a long time inhabited the southern peninsulas, that is to say they were absorbed into the lower classes of these peoples, for their upper classes had been swept away in the time of Augustine. The Goths were among the tribes absorbed in this way, but mainly those Goths who peopled the countries of middle and western Europe; those who settled in the northern regions of southern Europe maintained their own existence and acquired a permanent home there.
Thus we see that after the fourth century the possession of a fixed dwelling place becomes an essential characteristic of these peoples. And now the whole spiritual life begins to change. It is most remarkable what a radical change now takes place in the spiritual life of these people through their peculiar talent. They were gifted not only with special racial dispositions, but with a much greater freshness as a folk for experiencing spiritual reality in dreams; something which in the southern regions had long since been transformed into other forms of spiritual life.
But now they have become settled, and through their peculiar endowment a new kind of spiritual life developed in them. What in earlier times had expressed itself in ancestor-worship, had conjured before the soul the picture of the revered forefather, now attached itself to the place. Wherever there was some special grove, some mountain which contained let us say, special treasures of metal, wherever there was a place from which one could watch storms and so on, there, with a depth of feeling left to them from their old ancestor-imaginations and dreams, men felt something holy to be connected with the place. And the gods that used to be ancestral became gods of place.
Religious perceptions lost their time a character and took on a spatial character. Those who had been previously the interpreters of dreams, the interpreters of inner soul-experience, now became the guardians what one might call the signs c—the peculiar reflection of the sun in this or that waterfall or other feature of nature, the phenomena of the cloud-drifts in certain valleys and so on—these are now the objects of interpretation, something which then became transformed into the system of Runes cultivated in certain places, where twigs were plucked from trees and thrown down, and the signs read from the special forms into which the twigs fell. Religion underwent a metamorphosis into a religion of space. The entire spiritual life became attached to the place. Thus these tribes became more and more susceptible to the influence which the Roman Catholic Church, since it had become the state church in the fourth century, had been accustomed to exercise over the southern peoples, that is to say over the lower classes which had been left behind after the upper classes have been swept away.
And what was it that the church had done? In these southern regions the period of transition from the time conception to the spatial conception of the world was long since past, and something of extraordinary importance always happens in a period of transition from a time outlook to a spatial outlook, a certain living experience passes over into an experience through symbol and cult. This had already taken place for the lower classes of the people in the southern regions. So long as men continue to live in their time-conceptions, the priests, those who in the sense of ancient times we can call learned men, our interpreters of a corresponding life of the soul. They were engaged in explaining what man experience. They were able to do that because men lived in small village communities, and the interpreter, who was in fact the leader of the whole spiritual life, could address himself to the individual, or to a small group. When the transition takes place from the time-outlook to the space-outlook, then this living element is more or less suppressed. The priest can no longer refer to what the individual has experienced. He can no longer treat of what the individual tells them and explain to him what he has experienced. What is something living is thus transformed into something bound to a place. And thus ritual gradually arises, the pictorial expression of what in earlier times was a direct experience of the super-sensible world.
And at this point development begins again, so to say, from the other side. The human being now sees the symbol, he interprets the symbol. What the Roman Catholic Church built up as cult was built up with exact knowledge of this world-historic course of human evolution. The transition from the ancient celebration of the Last Supper into the sacrifice of the Mass arose, in that the living Last Supper became the symbolic rite. Into this sacrifice of the Mass, it is true, flowed primeval holy mystery usages which had been handed down in the lower classes of the people. These practices were now permeated with the new conceptions Christianity brought. They became, so to say, christianised. The lower classes of the Roman people provided good material for such a birth of ritual, which was now to reveal the super-sensible world in symbol.
And as the northern tribes had also made the transition to a spiritual life associated with place, this ritual could also be implanted among them, for they began to meet it with understanding. This is the bases of one of the streams which start in the fourth century A.D.
The other stream must be characterised differently. I have described how the ancient ancestor-worship lived on, rolling over from the east upon the declining Roman Empire. In the “Our Father” of Wulfila we see that in these nomadic peoples Christianity was absorbed into the ancestral cults and the cults connected with locality. And that constitutes the essence of Arian Christianity. The dogmatic conflict in the background is not so important. The important thing for this Arian Christianity, which traveled with the Goths and the other German tribes from the East towards the West by a path which did not lead through Rome, is that in it Christianity becomes steeped in a living spiritual life which has not yet reached the stage of ritual, that is closely related to the dream experience, to the clairvoyant experience, if you will not misunderstand the expression.
On the other hand the Christianity that Augustine experienced had passed through the culture of the upper classes of the southern peoples, and had to encounter all sorts of oriental cults and religious ideas, which flowed together in a great city of Rome. The heathen Augustine had grown up amidst these religious ideas and had turned from them towards Christianity in the way I have described. He stands within a spiritual stream which was experienced by the individual in quite a different way from the stream I have already mentioned. The latter arose out of the most elemental forces of the folk-soul life. What Augustine experienced was something which had risen into the upper class through many filtrations. And this was now taken over and preserved by the Roman Catholic clergy. Moreover its content is far less important for the progress of history than the whole configuration of soul that constituted first Greco-Roman culture and then, through the adoption of Christianity, the culture of the Catholic clergy. It is essential to see this culture as it was at that time and as it then lived on through the centuries. Our present-day educational system is something which remains over from the real culture of that time.
After one had mastered the first elements of knowledge, which we should to-day call primary education, one entered what was called the grammar class. In the grammar classes one was taught structure of speech; one learned how to use speech properly in accordance with the usages established by the poets and the writers. Then one assimilated all other knowledge that was not kept secret, for even at that time quite a lot of knowledge was kept secret by certain mystery schools. What was not kept secret was imparted through grammar, but through the medium of speech. And if anyone reached a higher stage of culture, as for example Augustine, then he passed on from the study of grammar to the study of rhetoric. There the object was to train the pupil above all in the appropriate use of symbol, how to form his sentences rightly, particularly how to lead his sentences to a certain climax. This was what the people who aspired to culture had to practice.
One must be able to sense what such a training develops in a human being. Through this purely grammatical and rhetorical kind of education he is brought into a certain connection with the surface of his nature, he is within what sounds through his mouth far more than is under the influence of thought. He pays much more attention to the structure of speech and to the connection of thought. And that was the primary characteristic of this ancient culture, that it was not concerned with the inner soul experience, but with structure, the form of speech, with the pleasure it gives. In short, the man became externalised by this culture. And in the fourth century, at that time Augustine was a student, as we should say to-day, we can see clearly this process of externalization, this living in the turn of words, in the form of expression. Grammar and rhetoric were the things that students had to learn. And there was good reason for this. For what we to-day call intelligent thought did not at that time exist. It is a mere superstition very commonly to be found in history to suppose that men have always thought in the way they think today. The entire thought of the Greek epoch right up to the fourth century A.D. was quite different. I have gone into this to a certain extent in my Riddles of Philosophy. Thought was not hatched out of inner soul activity, as is the case to-day, but thought came to the human being of itself like a dream. Particularly was this the case in the East, and the Oriental spiritual life which had animated Greece and still animated Rome was not won through thinking, it came, even when it was thought, as dream pictures come. And the oriental and south-european scholars only differed from those of the north in that the pictures that came to the northerners at first stimulated ideas of their ancestors, and later were associated with particular localities and became more or less ritualistic. The ideas that were formed in Asia, in southern Europe, already had the character of thought, but they were not thoughts won by inner soul activity, inner intelligence, they were inwardly revealed thoughts. One experienced what one called knowledge and elaborated for oneself only the word, the sentence, the discourse. There is no logical activity. Logic arose through Aristotle, when Greece was already decadent. And what lived in beauty of speech, in rhetoric, was essentially Roman culture, and became the culture of Catholic Christianity.
This habit of living not in oneself but in an external element expresses itself in the education that was given, and one can see how in this respect Augustine was a representative of his time. The correspondence between Jerome and Augustine is illuminating in this respect. It shows how differently these people conducted an argument in the fourth or beginning of the fifth century from the way we should do so to-day. When we discuss things to-day we have a feeling that we make use of a certain activity of thought. When these people discussed, one of them would have the feeling—“Well, I have formed my own view about a certain point, but perhaps my organism does not give me the right view. I will hear what the other man has to say; perhaps something else will emerge from his organism.” These men were within a much more real element of inner experience. This difference is seen also in Augustine's attitude in condemning heretics of various sorts. We see people deriving from the life of the common people, people like the priests of Donatism, like Pelagius and some others, specially coming to the fore. These people, although they believe themselves to be entirely Christian, stress the point that man's relation to justice, to sin, must come from the man himself. And thus we see a whole series of people one after the other who cannot believe that it has any sense to baptize children and thereby to bring about forgiveness of sins. We see objections made against the Christianity issuing from Rome, we see how Pelagianism wins adherents, and how Augustine, as a true representative of the Catholic element, attacks it. He rejected a conception of sin connected with human subjectivity. He rejects the view that a relation to the spiritual world or to Christ can come from an individual human impulse. Hence he works to bring about gradually the passing over of the Church into the external institution. The important question is not what is in the child, but what the Church as external ordnance bestows upon it. The point is not that baptism signifies something for the soul's experience, but that there exists an external ordnance of the Church which is fulfilled in baptism. The value of the human soul living in the body matters less than that the universal spirit that lives in the sacrament, so to say an astral sacrament, should be poured out over mankind. The individual plays no part, but the important thing is the web of abstract dogmas and ideas which is spread over humanity. To Augustine it seems particularly dangerous to believe that the human being should first be prepared to receive baptism, for it is not a question of what the human being inwardly wills, but it is a question of admitting into the Kingdom of God which has objective existence. And that is essentially the setting in which Athanasian Christianity lived, in contrast to the other background that originated in the north-east, in which a certain popular element lived. But the Church understood how to clothe the abstract element in the ritualistic form which again arose from below. It was this that made it possible for the Church to spread in this European element, from which the ancient culture had vanished. And above all it attains this expansion through the exclusion of the wide masses of the people from the essential substance of religious culture. It is a matter of tremendous significance that in the centuries which follow this substance is propagated in the Latin language.
And from the fourth century A.D. onward Christianity is propagated in the Latin tongue. It is as it were a stream flowing over the heads of men. That goes on right up to the fifteenth century. For what history usually relates is only the outer form of what went on in the souls of men. Christianity was kept secret by those who taught at right up to the eleventh and twelfth centuries, in a far deeper sense than the ancient Mysteries were kept secret. For only the outer ritual penetrated the masses. And what was transmitted, which at the same time laid claim to all science coming from the ancient culture and clothed it in the Latin tongue, this was the Church, something which hovered above the essential evolution of humanity.
And the centuries between the fourth and the fourteenth stand under the sign of these two parallel streams. The external history books, even the histories of the mind, only give the traditional description of what leaks out into greater publicity from the Latin ecclesiastical stream. Hence from present-day historical literature we get no idea of what took place among the wide masses of the people.
What took place among the masses was something like this. At first there were only village communities; in the colonization of the whole of middle, western and even of southern Europe the towns played a very small part. The most significant life developed in small village communities; such towns as did exist were really only large villages; in these large village communities there was the Catholic Church, way over the heads of men, but through the ritual working suggestively upon them; however, these men who only saw the symbolic rite, who participated in the cult, who watched something which they could not understand, did nevertheless develop a spiritual life of their own. The very rich spiritual life developed throughout Europe at that time, a spiritual life which stood first and foremost under the influence of human nature itself. It was something quite apart from their participation in the spread of Catholic doctrine. For to associate everything with the personality of Boniface, for instance, is to place things a false light. What went on in these village communities was an inner soul life through which echoed the omens of the divinity or spirituality associated with the place. Everywhere people saw intimations from one or other of these. They developed a magical life. Everywhere human beings had premonitions, and told their fellows about them. These premonitions expressed themselves in sagas, in mysterious hints as to what one or another had experienced spiritually in the course of his work.
But something very remarkable permeated this remains of an ancient prophetic and clairvoyant dream-life, which continued to flourish in the village communities whilst Catholic doctrine passed over their heads, and one can see that everywhere in Europe the organization of the human being was involved in this characteristic spiritual life. Something was at work which indicated a quite special disposition of soul in two respects. When people told of their weightiest premonitions, their most significant dreams (these were always associated with places), when they describe their half-waking, half-sleeping experiences, these dreams are always connected either with events, with questions which were asked them from out of the spiritual world, or with tasks which were imposed upon them, with matters in which their skill played a part. From the whole character of these stories, which were still to be found among the common people in the nineteenth century, one sees that when men began to ponder and to dream and to build up their legendary sagas in their mythologies, of the three members of the human being it was not so much the nerve-system—which is more connected with the outer world—but the rhythmic system which was active; and in that the rhythmic system was drawn forth out of the organism it showed itself in clairvoyant dreams which passed by word of mouth from one to another, and in this way the villagers shared with one another fear and joy, happiness and beauty. In all this there was always an element of delicate questioning which came from the spiritual world. People had to solve riddles half in dreams, had to carry out skillful actions, had to overcome something or other. It was always something of the riddle in this dream life.
That is the physiological basis of the widespread spiritual experience of these men who lived in village communities. Into this, of course, penetrated the deeds of Charlemagne of which history tells you; but those are only surface experiences, though they do of course enter deeply into individual destiny. They are not the main thing. The important thing is what takes place in the village communities, and there, side by side with the economic life, a spiritual life developed such as I have described. And this spiritual life goes on right into the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. Of course, something of what has developed in the heads of men in the upper strata of society gradually trickles down into the lower strata, and the ghostly and magical character of the stories men recount gets charmingly mixed with the Christ and His deeds, and what comes from the human being himself is sometimes overlaid with what comes from the Bible or the Gospel. But then we see that it is primarily into social thinking that the Christian element is received. We see it in ‘Der Heliand’ and other poems which arose out of Christianity but always we see something spiritual brought to the people, who meet it with a spirituality of their own.
When we come to the tenth and eleventh centuries we see a change in the external life. Even earlier, but at this time more markedly so, we see life centering itself in the towns. That life of picture-like waking dreams which I have described to you is altogether bound up with the soil. As, therefore, in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth centuries the whole country became covered with larger towns, in these towns another kind of thinking began to develop. Men living in towns had a different kind of thought. They were cut off from the places in which their local cults had developed, their attention was more directed towards what was human.
But the human element which developed of the towns was still under the influence of this earlier state of mind, for some of the people who settled in the towns came from the villages and they with very special spiritual endowment made their own contribution. What they brought with them was an inner personal life which was an echo of what was experienced in the country, but which now manifested itself in a more abstract form. These men were cut off from nature, they no longer participated in the life of nature, and although they still have forms of thought derived from nature, they already began to develop the kind of thinking which was gradually directed towards intelligence. In the towns of the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries there developed the first trace of that intelligence which we see arise in the fifteenth century among the leading European peoples. Because life in the towns was more abstract, the abstract ecclesiastical element, clothed in the Latin tongue, became mixed up with what sprang directly out of the people.
Thus we see how this Latin element developed in the towns in a more and more abstract form. Then we see the great outburst of people from below upwards in various countries. There is a great to-do when Dante, assisted by his teacher, makes his way up into the world of culture. But even that is only one instance of many similar outbursts which happened because of the peculiar manner in which the Latin culture came up against the popular element in the towns.
We must not forget that still other streams entered into what was taking place at that time. It is of course true that the main streams of spiritual life, which so to say carried the others, was the one that continued the spiritual tradition in which Augustine had lived; that controlled everything and finally not only gave the towns the bishops, who controlled the spiritual life, if somewhat abstractly and over the heads of the people, but also, little by little, because it took over everything from the constitution of the Roman empire, ended by giving the civil government also, and built up the alliance between Church and State which in the eleventh and twelfth centuries was very close. We see other events light up in this stream, we see crusades arise, which I need not describe to you, because I want to lay the greatest stress upon the things that external history places in a false light; and too little importance is attached to other currents that were present.
First of all there is the commercial traffic which had in fact always existed in Europe between the Danube basin and the East. There was constant trading in both directions particularly in the middle of the middle ages. In this way oriental ideas in an advanced stage of decadence were brought over into Europe. And someone who had probably never been in the east himself but had only traded with men from the east, brought to the householder not only spices, but spiritual life, a spiritual life tinged with Orientalism. This traffic went on throughout the whole of Europe. It had less influence on Latin culture, far more on the wide masses of people who understood no Latin. In the towns and in the surrounding villages there was a living intercourse with the east which was not merely a matter of listening to tales of adventure that which deeply influenced spiritual life. And if you want to understand figures such as Jacob Boehme, who came later, Paracelsus and many others, then you must bear in mind that they sprang from people who had developed without any understanding of the Latin culture which passed over their heads, but who were in a certain way steeped in Orientalism. All that developed as popular alchemy, astrology, fortune telling, had developed out of the union of what I described above as the inner experience of the riddle, told in waking dreams, with what came over from the east as decadent oriental life. Nor within the Latin culture have the will to think been able to make any headway. The logic of Aristotle had appeared, as it were, like a meteor. We see that even Augustine was little influenced by this logic. By the fourth century interest had been withdrawn from Greece, and later the Emperor Justinian had closed the School of Philosophy at Athens. This led to the condemnation for heresy of Origen, who had brought with him into Christianity much of oriental culture, of the earlier spiritual life. And the Greek philosophers were driven out. The teaching that they had from Aristotle was driven into Asia. The Greek philosophers founded centre in Asia, and carried on the Academy of Gondishapur, which had for its main objective the permeation of the old decadent oriental spiritual culture with Aristotelianism, its transformation into an entirely new form. It was the Academy of Gondishapur wherein a logical form of thought developed with giant strides, that saved Aristotelianism. Aristotelianism was not transmitted through Christianity, it came into Latin-ecclesiastical life by way of Africa, Spain and the west of Europe. And thus we see how Gondishapur, this philosophic form of Arabism, which does contain a living world-conception, although it is quite abstract, brings its influence to bear upon the current which we have already described as passing over the heads of men.
I have described to you both these streams, the one at work above, in the heads of men, the other in their hearts. They work together and it is very significant that the ancient culture was transmitted in a dying language. Of course there then flows into all this what came through the Renaissance. But I cannot describe everything to-day. I want to point out some of the main things which are of special interest to us. The two currents existed side-by-side right on into the fifteenth century.
Then something happened of extraordinary importance. The thought of antiquity, inspired thought which was half vision, became gradually clothed in abstract forms of speech, and became Christian philosophy, Christian spiritual life, the Scholastic philosophy, out of which the modern university system developed. In this grammatical-rhetorical atmosphere not thought, but the garment of thought, Romanism lived on. But in the popular stream thinking was born, evoked through subjective activity—for the first time in human evolution. Out of this ghostly-magical element of presentiment, mingled with Orientalism, which above all had its life in the interpretation of natural phenomena, active thinking was born. And this birth of thought out of the dreamlike mystical element took place somewhere about the fifteenth century. But up to that time the system of Roman law, clothed in Latin form, gathers strength side by side with the Roman priesthood. This current over the heads of men had been able to spread everywhere in a most systematic way first in the villages, then in the towns, and now in the new age which dawned in the fifteenth century it joined forces with that other current which now arose. In the towns people were proud of their individualism, of their freedom. One can see this in the portraits painted at that time. But the village communities were shut off from all this. Then the medieval princes rose to power. And those who outside in the villages gradually came to be in opposition to the towns, found in the princes their leaders. And it was from the country, from the villages that the impulse came which drew the towns into the wider administrative structure, into which then came Roman law. There arose the modern state, made up of the country parishes; thus the country conquered the towns again, and became itself permeated by what came out of the Latin element has Roman law. Thus the latter had now become so strong that what was stirring among the common people could find no further outlet; what in the times of unrest, as they were called, had expressed itself among the Russian peasants in the Hussite movement, in Wycliffism, in the Bohemian Brotherhood, such movements could no longer happen; the only thing that could find expression was what merged with the Roman-administrative element.
Thus we see that the folk-element which had won for itself the reality of thought, which held its own in opposition to the Roman-Latin element, remained to begin with a faint glow under the surface. There is a cleavage in the spiritual life. Out of the Latin element develops Nominalism, for which universal concepts are merely names. Just as this was an inevitable development from grammar and rhetoric, so, where there still remained a spark of the folk-element, as was the case with Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, there developed Realism, which experienced thought and expression of something real. But at first Nominalism had the victory. All that happened in the historical evolution of humanity is in a sense necessary, and we see that the abstract element becomes all the stronger because it is carried by the dead Latin language right up to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and is then fructified by thought, has to reckon with the birth of thought, but clothes thought in abstractions. And the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries are primarily under the influence of thought born from out of the ancient Gothic Germanic way of life, clothed however in Roman formulae, in grammatical, rhetorical formulae. But now that they have been fructified by thought, these formulae can be called logical formulae. That now becomes inward human thinking. Now one could think thoughts, but the thoughts had no content. All the old world-conceptions contained, together with the inward experience, at the same time cosmic mysteries. So that thought still had content right up to the fourth century A.D. Then came the time which as it were bore the future in its womb, the time in which rhetoric, grammar and dialectic developed further and further in a dead language. Then that was fructified by the force of thought which came from below, and men acquired mastery over that, but in itself it had no content. There was a dim perception of Realism but a belief in Nominalism, and with the aid of Nominalism next came the conquest of nature.
Thought as inner soul life brought no content with it. This content had to be sought from without. Thus we see how from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century the conquest of natural law was the achievement of a thinking that was empty of all content, but was born as a capacity out of all that Europe had brought forth as her own. In the middle of the nineteenth century men began to be aware “With your thought you are conquering natural law, you are conquering the external world, but thought itself is making no progress.” And men gradually got into the way of eliminating from their thought everything that did not come from outside. They found their life in religious faith which was supposed to have nothing to do with scientific knowledge, because their thinking has become void of content and had to fill itself only with external facts and natural entities. The content of faith was to be protected because it had to do with the super-sensible. But because this empty thinking had no content, it could apply itself to the sense-perceptible. But this faith in which man lived could only fill itself with old traditions, with the content of the oriental culture of the past, which still lived on.
It was the same with art. If one looks back to earlier times, one finds art closely associated with religion, and religious ideas find their expression in works of art. One sees how their ideas about the Gods find expression in the Greek dramatists or the Greek sculptors. Art is something within the whole structure of the spiritual life. But by the time of the Renaissance Art begins to be taken more externally. Indeed in the nineteenth century we see more and more how men are happy to be offered a pure phantasy in art, something which they need not accept as a reality, something which has nothing to do with reality. And such men as Goethe are like modern hermits. Goethe says “He to whom nature begins to unveil her open secrets feels an irresistible longing for her worthiest interpreter, art.” Art, says Goethe, is a revelation of nature's secret laws, laws which would never be revealed without her. And it is worthy of note that Goethe has a way of turning to the past, different from that of other men,—he speaks therein for a content, in the age of empty intellect, filled only with the impression of the external world of the senses. He yearns toward Greece. And when in Rome he finds still something of what Greek art has fashioned out of the depths of its philosophy, he writes “That is necessity, that is God.” Art unveiled for him the spirituality of the world which he was trying to experience. But more and more men have a obscure ill-defined feeling “This thinking of ours is all right for the external world, but it is not suited to attain to an inner spiritual content.” And thus we see the second half of the nineteenth century run its course. As I remarked yesterday, the winds of the first half of the nineteenth century, such as Hegel, Saint-Simon or even Spencer, still believed that they could reach a philosophy, even a social philosophy, out of their inner soul experiences. In the second half of the nineteenth century men thought that no longer.
But something of what had given birth to thought out of the unconscious was still at work. Why was it that in the portentous dreams of village populations over the whole of Europe right up to the twelfth century there was always something of this riddle-solving element, this cleverness which expresses itself in all sorts of cunning? It was because thought, reflection, the work of thinking, was born. The foundation of thought was laid. And now we see how in the second half of the nineteenth century there is utter despair. Everywhere we find statements as to the boundaries of knowledge. And with the same rigidity and dogmatism with which once the scholastics had said that reason could not rise to the super-sensible, du Bois-Reymond, for example, said that scientific investigation could not penetrate to the consciousness of matter. I mean that previously the barrier had been set up in relation to this super-sensible; now it referred to what was supposed to hide behind the senses. But in all manner of other spheres we see the same phenomena emerge.
Ranke the historian of the second half of the nineteenth century is very typical in this respect. According to him history has to investigate the external events, even of the time in which Christianity begins to spread; one has to pay attention to what is taking place in the world around one politically and socially and culturally. What however has taken place through Christ in the course of human evolution—that Ranke assigns to the original world (Urwelt), not in the temporal sense, but to the world behind what can be investigated. We have seen that the scientist du Bois-Reymond says ‘ignorabimus’ as regards matter and consciousness. Natural Science can go pretty far; but what is there where matter lurks, what is there where consciousness arises, there du Bois-Reymond formulates his seven universal riddles; they are he pronounces his ‘ignorabimus!’ And Leopold von Ranke, the historian who works in the same spirit says “Upon all the wealth of existing documents historical investigations can pour its light; but behind what is at work as external historical fact there are events which seem to be primeval.” Everything which thus lies at the base of history he calls the ‘Urwelt’, just as does du Bois-Reymond the world lying beyond the limits of natural science. Within that sphere lie the Christian mysteries, the religious mysteries of all peoples. There the historian says ‘ignorabimus’. ‘Ignorabimus’ alike from scientist and historian; that is the mood of the entire spiritual life of the second half of the nineteenth century.
Wherever you meet the spiritual life, in Wagnerian music, in the cult of Nietzsche, everywhere this mood is to be found. The former is driven to take refuge in certain musical dreams, the latter suffers through what is taking place in the world of ‘ignorabimus’. Agnosticism becomes fashionable, becomes politics, shapes the state. And anyone who wishes to do anything positive but relies not on any kind of gnosticism, but upon agnosticism. The strategy of Marxism builds upon what lies in the instincts, not upon something which it wants to bring forth of super-earthly nature. We see how everywhere spirituality is driven back, how agnosticism becomes the formative reality. It is thus that we have to understand modern spiritual life. We shall only understand it aright if we follow its origin from the fourth century A.D., if we know that in it Nominalism is living, the purely legalistic and logical; and thought has been born in the way I have described. This thought, however, is still only so far born as to be able to make use of formalism, of empty thinking. It slumbers in the depths of civilised humanity. It must be brought out into the open.
We learn how really to study history, if we illuminate with the light of spiritual investigation what has hovered over us since the fourth century. Then we can know what is above. And certainly thought has become fruitful and natural science because it has been fructified by thought born out of human nature in the way I have described. But now in the time of poverty, in the time of need, mankind needs to remember that thought which to begin with could only fructify formalism—empty thought that receives knowledge of nature from outside—has exhausted itself in natural scientific agnosticism, must strengthened itself, must become ripe for vision, must raise itself into the super-sensible world. This thought is there, it has already played a part in natural scientific knowledge, but its essential force still lies deep beneath the consciousness of human evolution. That we must recognize as a historical fact, then we shall develop trust in the inner force of spirituality, then we shall establish a spiritual science, not out of vague mysticism, but out of clarity of thought. And the thoughts of such a spiritual science will pass over into action, they will be able to work into the human social and other institutions. We are constantly saying that history should be our teacher. It cannot be our teacher by putting before us what is past and over, but by making it capable of discovering the new in the depths of existence. What goes forth from this place goes forth in search of such a new vision. And it can find its justification not only in the inculcation of spiritual scientific method, but also by a right treatment of history.
Das europäische Geistesleben im neunzehnten Jahrhundert mit Beziehung auf seinen Ausgangspunkt im vierten Jahrhundert II
Gestern versuchte ich darzustellen, wie in das verflossene Jahrhundert, ungefähr in die Mitte, ein radikaler Umschwung des Geisteslebens fällt, und ich versuchte dann weiter zu zeigen, wie die besondere Konfiguration des Denkens, des Geisteslebens überhaupt, die da im 19. Jahrhundert zu beobachten ist und die diesen Umschwung erlebt, zurückführt zu einer anderen radikalen abendländischen Wendung, die wir im 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert zu suchen haben. Nun könnte es zunächst scheinen, als ob da sehr weit auseinanderliegende Zeiträume miteinander in ein zu nahes Verhältnis gebracht würden. Allein, gerade diese Betrachtung wird uns auf gewisse innere Zusammenhänge der Menschheitsgeschichte führen können. Wir werden heute von dem ausgehen, bei dem wir gestern in gewissem Sinne gelandet sind. Bei dem Untergange der antiken Bildung und des Römischen Reiches waren wir gestern angekommen und haben einiges, das gerade für jenen Zeitpunkt charakteristisch ist, hervorgehoben.
Wir haben zwei repräsentative Persönlichkeiten vor unsere Seele gestellt, eine Persönlichkeit, die sich ganz herausentwickelt aus dem Südwesten, Augustinus, und wir haben sie verglichen mit einer anderen Persönlichkeit und mit der geistigen Strömung, aus der diese herauswuchs, mit Wulfila, dem gotischen Bibelübersetzer.
Bei Augustinus muß man vor allen Dingen sich darüber klar sein, daß? er durchaus ein Kind derjenigen Verhältnisse ist, die sich im Südwesten der europäisch-afrikanischen Zivilisation der damaligen Zeit entwickelt haben. Diejenigen Menschen, die dazumal überhaupt nach einer höheren Bildung strebten, sie fanden diese Bildung nicht anders als dadurch, daß sie zusammengebracht wurden mit dem, was sich seinem Wesen nach in einer gewissen Oberschichte der menschlichen Bevölkerung nun seit langer Zeit als eine Weltanschauung und in gewissem Sinne als eine Literatur, eine Kunst, eine Wissenschaft herausgebildet hatte. Schon dasjenige, was uns bekannt ist als griechische Bildung, ist ja nur dadurch denkbar, daß es das Eigentum war einer menschlichen Oberschichte, die ihre gröbere Arbeit, die gröberen Verrichtungen den Sklaven überließ. Und erst recht die römische Bildung ist ohne die weitausgebreitete Sklaverei nicht denkbar. Es war diese Bildung dadurch lebendig, daß den Menschen, die sie hatten, vor allen Dingen auch das entzogen war, was als Gedanken- und Empfindungsweise waltete in der ganzen breiten Masse der Bevölkerung. Aber man darf sich deshalb nicht vorstellen, daf3 in dieser breiten Masse der Bevölkerung etwa kein geistiges Leben vorhanden gewesen wäre. Das war durchaus vorhanden. Es war sogar ein außerordentlich starkes geistiges Leben vorhanden, ein geistiges Leben, das sich allerdings mehr wie der Mutterboden, der auf einer früheren Stufe der Entwickelung zurückgebliebene Mutterboden eines geistigen Lebens ausnahm, im Vergleich zu der anderen, der oberschichtigen Bildung, aber eben durchaus als ein Geistesleben.
Dieses Geistesleben ist nun historisch wenig bekannt geworden; es ist aber sehr ähnlich demjenigen, das durch die sogenannten barbarischen Völker, die durch das Vordringen der asiatischen Bevölkerung ins Wandern gekommen sind, nun in die südlichen Gegenden Europas hineingetragen wird. Man muß versuchen, sich möglichst konkrete Vorstellungen zu machen von diesem Geistesleben. Wir wollen es einmal versuchen bei den nach dem Römischen Reich vordringenden Völkern.
Wenn wir die Völker betrachten, welche als Goten, Vandalen, Langobarden, Heruler und so weiter ins Wandern gekommen waren, so können wir von ihnen sagen: In der Zeit, bevor die Völkerwanderung begonnen hat, also in der Zeit, die vorangeht dem 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert, das für uns einen so wichtigen Wendepunkt bezeichnet, hatten diese Menschen im Osten drüben ein Geistesleben, das in gewissen religiösen Anschauungen gipfelte, die alles durchdrangen, die sich in ihren Verzweigungen, in ihren Empfindungsfolgen bis in die alltäglichen Verrichtungen erstreckten. In gewissen religiösen Vorstellungen, sage ich. Die Völker, die da ins Wandern gekommen waren, waren ja auch, bevor die Völkerwanderung begann, schon einmal längere Zeit seßhaft. Während dieses ihres seßhaften Zustandes - das kann man nicht nur durch Geisteswissenschaft konstatieren, sondern auch durch die Nachklänge der Sagen und Mythen, die in diesen Völkern lebten - machten sie eben das erst durch, was die orientalischen Völker, die südorientalischen Völker, aus denen dann die indische und die persische Kultur und so weiter hervorgegangen sind, längst in früheren Zeiten durchgemacht hatten, ja, was auch die südeuropäischen und die nordafrikanischen Völker in viel älterer Zeit durchgemacht hatten. Es lebten diese Völker in dem, was man eine Religion nennen kann, die eng zusammenhing mit ihren ganzen Blutsverhältnissen. Was sie verehrten, das waren gewisse Familienahnen. Aber diese Ahnen kamen erst zur Verehrung viele Jahre, nachdem sie hingegangen waren, nachdem sie tot waren; und diese Verehrung gründete sich keineswegs auf irgendwelche abstrakte Vorstellungen, sondern diese Verehrung gründete sich auf dasjenige, was man instinktiv traumhaft erlebte - wenn man den Ausdruck nicht mißverstehen will-, als traumhaft hellseherische Vorstellungen. Denn es waren gewisse Vorstellungen, die auf ganz andere Weise zustande kamen, als heute unsere Vorstellungen sich bilden. Indem wir heute Vorstellungen hegen, spielt sich unser seelisches Leben unabhängig von unserer Leibeskonstitution ab. Wir spüren dabei nicht mehr das Brodeln und Kochen der Leibeskonstitution. Diese Völker, sie hatten ein gewisses intensiv nach innen gerichtetes Empfinden für das, was sich in ihrem Leibe abspielte, in das naturhaft hineinwirkten alle möglichen Weltengeheimnisse. Denn nicht nur in der chemischen Retorte wirken die Weltenvorgänge gesetzmäßig, sondern eben auch im menschlichen Leibe. Und wie heute der Chemiker durch seinen abstrakten Verstand aus den Vorgängen in der Retorte zu erkennen versucht die Weltengesetze, so versuchten diese Menschen durch das, was sie innerlich erlebten, durch ihren eigenen Organismus, dessen innere Vorgänge sie empfanden, in die Weltengeheimnisse einzudringen. Es war durchaus ein inneres Erleben, aber ein inneres Erleben, das eng noch mit den körperlichen Vorstellungen zusammenhing. Und aus diesen durch das innere Kochen des Organismus hervorgerufenen Vorstellungen entwickelten sich heraus die Anschauungen, die Bilder, die bezogen wurden von diesen Menschen auf die Ahnen. Die Ahnen waren gewissermaßen diejenigen, deren Stimmen durch die Traumgebilde noch jahrhundertelang gehört wurden. Die Ahnen waren die Herrscher der durchweg in kleinen Gemeinden, in Dorfgemeinden lebenden Völkerschaften. Diese Art der Ahnenverehrung, einer Ahnenverehrung, die lebendig war durch traumhaftes Vorstellen, hatten diese Völkerschaften noch, als sie herüberzogen von dem Osten Europas nach dem Westen. Und wenn wir auf die Lehrer hinschauen, auf die Priesterschaft dieser Völker, wodurch sich uns eine weitere Eigentümlichkeit ihres Geisteslebens kundgeben kann, so finden wir diese Priesterschaft vor allen Dingen durch den fortgeschrittenen Geist, den einzelne hatten, die eben solche Priester oder Lehrer wurden, dazu berufen, auszulegen, was den einzelnen Menschen in ihren Traumbildern erschien, die aber durchaus das wache Tagesbewußtsein durchzogen. Deuter, Interpreten desjenigen, was der einzelne erlebte, das waren diese Priester.
Nun kamen diese Völker ins Wandern. Während ihrer Wanderschaft war das ihre große geistige Wohltat, daß sie in dieser Weise ein innerlich hellseherisches Geistesleben hatten, das ihnen von ihren Priestern interpretiert wurde. Dieses Leben hat sich niedergeschlagen in Sagen, die namentlich in der slawischen Welt noch vorhanden sind, die gewissermaßen in der slawischen Welt sich überliefert haben und denen man es noch ansieht, daß sie enthalten, was ich jetzt kurz, allerdings skizzenhaft, dargestellt habe.
Nun kamen aber bald nach dem 4. Jahrhunderte diese Völkerschaften wiederum zur Seßhaftigkeit. Einzelne verschwinden in der Bevölkerung, die unten im Süden, auf den südlichen Halbinseln längst seßhaft war, in dem Teile der Völkerschaften, die die Unterschichte bildeten. Denn die Oberschichte wurde ja gerade in der Augustinischen Zeit sozusagen weggefegt. Aber sie verschwanden dort. Goten unter anderem verschwanden dort. Diejenigen aber, die namentlich die mitteleuropäischen Länder, die den Westen bevölkerten, diejenigen, die dann im nördlichen Teil des südlichen Europas sich ansiedelten, die verblieben, die bekamen wiederum feste Wohnsitze.
Und so sehen wir, daß nach dem 4. Jahrhunderte dieses FesteWohnsitze-Bekommen eine wesentliche Eigentümlichkeit dieser eingewanderten Bevölkerung ist. Und nun ändert sich das ganze Geistesleben dieser Bevölkerung dadurch, daß eben feste Wohnsitze aufgeschlagen waren. Es ist sehr merkwürdig, wie radikal sich dadurch das geistige Leben ändert, allerdings auch durch die besondere Veranlagung, welche diese Menschen hatten. Diese Menschen hatten ja eine besondere Rassen-, eine besondere Volksveranlagung in sich, sie hatten in sich noch in einer viel größeren Frische dasjenige Empfinden, das in Träumen leben und in Träumen geistige Wirklichkeit erleben wollte, etwas, was in den südlichen Gegenden längst in andere Formen des geistigen Lebens sich verwandelt hatte. Aber seßhaft wurden sie, und auch durch ihre besondere Veranlagung bildete sich jetzt als geistiges Leben etwas anderes bei ihnen aus. Was sich früher ausgelebt hatte im Heraufschauen zu den Ahnen, was ihnen die Bilder verehrter Vorfahren vor die Seele zauberte, das heftete sich jetzt an die Orte.
Da, wo irgendein besonderes Waldesdickicht war, wo Berge waren, die meinetwillen besondere Metallschätze enthielten, wo irgendwelche Orte waren, von denen aus man die Stürme besonders beobachten konnte und dergleichen, da fühlten und empfanden diese Menschen mit jenem tiefen Fühlen und Empfinden, das ihnen von ihren alten Ahnenvorstellungen an Träumereien geblieben war, etwas Heiliges gegenüber gewissen Orten. Und dasjenige, was Ahnengötter waren, das wurden Lokalgötter, Ortsgötter. Es heftete sich dasjenige, was Ortsgötter waren, an die Empfindungen, an die ganze innere Seelenverfassung, die sie mitgebracht hatten von der Verehrung der Ahnen her. Ich möchte sagen, die religiösen Vorstellungen verloren den Zeitcharakter und nahmen einen Raumescharakter an. Diejenigen, die früher Interpreten waren der Träume, die Interpreten waren der inneren Erlebnisse des Seelenwesens, die wurden jetzt die Pfleger dessen, was man nennen könnte die Zeichen. Das besondere SichSpiegeln der Sonne in diesem oder jenem Quellsturz, in sonstigen Naturerscheinungen, Erscheinungen des Wolkenganges in bestimmten Talgegenden und so weiter - ich brauche diese Dinge ja nur anzudeuten -, die wurden jetzt der Gegenstand der Interpretation, etwas, was sich dann direkt umsetzte in das Runenwesen. Dazu nahm man an besonderen Orten Stäbe vom Holz gewisser Bäume, und indem man sie hinwarf und dadurch besondere Figuren entstanden, konnten die Pfleger die Zeichen deuten, die da entstanden waren. Die ganze Zeitenreligion verwandelte sich in eine Raumesreligion. Das ganze Geistesleben wurde ein lokales Geistesleben. Dadurch aber wurden diese Völkerschaften immer mehr und mehr fähig, in derselben Weise behandelt zu werden, wie die römisch-katholische Kirche, seit sie im 4. Jahrhunderte Staatskirche geworden war, sich angewöhnt hatte, die untere Schichte der südlichen Völkerschaften zu behandeln, die übriggeblieben waren, nachdem die obere Schichte hinweggefegt war.
Und was hat die Kirche getan? In diesen südlichen Gegenden war längst die Zeit vorbei, die die von Norden einwandernden Völker durchmachten. Da war schon in alten Zeiten der Übergang von der Zeitenweltanschauung in die Raumesweltanschauung vollzogen worden. Und immer geschieht eines, wenn die Zeitenweltanschauung sich in die Raumesweltanschauung umwandelt. Da geschieht eines, was von außerordentlicher Bedeutung ist. Dabei geschieht es, daß übergeht ein gewisses lebendiges Erleben in ein symbolisch-kultisches Erleben. Das hatte sich schon für die untere Schichte der Bevölkerung in südlicheren Gegenden im Verhältnis zu der in nördlichen Gegenden längst vollzogen. Solange die Menschen in ihren Zeitenvorstellungen leben, sind die Priester, sind diejenigen, die man im alten Sinne Gelehrte nennen kann, Interpreten des entsprechenden Seelenlebens. Da befassen sich die Priester damit, den Menschen auszulegen, was diese Menschen erleben. Sie konnten das, weil die Menschen eigentlich nur in kleinen Dorfgemeinden lebten und derjenige, der in gewissem Sinne der Ausleger war, der Leiter des ganzen Geisteslebens überhaupt war, sich an die einzelnen oder an kleine Gruppen wenden konnte. In dem Zeitpunkte aber, wo dann diese Zeitenweltanschauung übergeht in die Raumesweltanschauung, da wird dieses lebendige Element mehr zurückgedrängt. Der Priester kann nicht mehr hinweisen auf dasjenige, was der einzelne erlebt hat, auf das, was ihm der einzelne erzählt, und ihm das deuten. Es verwandelt sich, was auf diese Weise lebendig ist, in dasjenige, was an den Ort und die Lokalität angeschlossen werden kann. Und dadurch entsteht allmählich die symbolische Ausbildung, die bildhafte Ausgestaltung dessen, was von den übersinnlichen Welten früher lebendig erlebt worden war. Das also verwandelt sich in etwas, das sich nunmehr in Kulthandlungen, in symbolischen Handlungen vollziehen sollte.
Und dann wiederum beginnt die Entwickelung von der anderen Seite. Jetzt sieht der Mensch die Symbolik, und er deutet wiederum die Symbolik aus. Was die römisch-katholische Kirche als Kultus ausgebildet hat, ist mit einer genauen Kenntnis dieses welthistorischen Ganges der Menschheitsentwickelung ausgebildet worden. Der Übergang der alten Abendmahlsfeste in das Meßopfer ist dadurch entstanden, daß dasjenige, was lebendiges Abendmahl war, sich in die symbolische Handlung, in das Meßopfer, umgestaltet hat. In dieses Meßopfer waren zwar uralt-heilige Mysterienbräuche aufgenommen worden, die sich fortgepflanzt hatten und die nun auch in die Unterschichten der Bevölkerung hinunterflossen. Sie waren jedoch durchsetzt mit demjenigen, was das Christentum an neuen Anschauungen gebracht hatte. Sie wurden gewissermaßen durchchristet. Die Unterschichte der römischen Bevölkerung gab ein gutes Material ab für ein solches Herausholen der Kulthandlungen, die nun symbolisch die übersinnliche Welt darstellen sollten. Und als die nördlichen Völkerschaften übergegangen waren zum lokalen geistigen Leben, da konnten diese Kulthandlungen auch unter sie verpflanzt werden, da fingen sie an, ihnen Verständnis entgegenzubringen. Darauf beruht zunächst die eine Strömung, die von diesem 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhunderte ausgegangen Ist.
Die zweite Strömung, die mit der ersten lange Zeit parallel lief, die muß in anderer Art charakterisiert werden. Wir erleben gewissermaßen in dem, was ich Ihnen geschildert habe, was sich da vom Osten gegen das untergehende Römische Reich herüberwälzte, noch durchaus bemerkbar, wie darinnen dieser alte Ahnenkultus fortlebte. In dem Vaterunser, wie ich es Ihnen gestern dargelegt habe, da zeigt sich das. Da ist bei diesen wandernden Völkerschaften das Christentum durchaus noch in die Ahnen- und in die Lokalreligion hinein aufgenommen worden. Und das ist gerade das Wesen des arianischen Christentums. Der dahinterstehende Dogmenstreit ist weniger wichtig. Wichtig für dieses arianische Christentum, das mit den Goten, mit den anderen germanischen Völkerschaften vom Osten nach Westen zog, ist, daß? da das Christentum auf einem Wege, der noch nicht über Rom ging, eingetaucht worden ist in ein solches lebendiges, noch nicht bis zum Kult gekommenes Leben, in ein lebendiges Geistesleben, das, wie gesagt, anknüpfte an die Traumerlebnisse, an die hellseherischen Erlebnisse, wenn der Ausdruck nicht mißverstanden wird.
Dagegen dasjenige Christentum, das Augustinus erlebte, das war durchgegangen durch die Bildung der Oberschichte der südländischen Bevölkerung. Und diesem Christentum, dem standen gegenüber alle möglichen orientalischen Kulte, alle möglichen orientalischen Religionsvorstellungen, welche im großen Rom zusammenflossen. Aus diesen Religionsvorstellungen heraus war Augustinus als Heide erwachsen, und er hatte sich von ihnen aus in der Art, wie ich das gestern charakterisiert habe, dem Christentum zugewendet. Er steht in einer Geistesströmung drinnen, welche in einer ganz anderen Art erlebt wurde von den einzelnen Persönlichkeiten als die Art, die ich eben charakterisiert habe als eine gewissermaßen volkstümliche, die aus den elementarsten Kräften des Volksseelenlebens heraufkam. Die Geistesströmung, die Augustinus erlebte, war eine vielfach filtrierte und als solche in die obere Schichte hinaufgestiegen. Sie wurde nun vom römisch-katholischen Priestertum übernommen und konserviert. Wiederum ist deren Inhalt für den Fortgang der Weltgeschichte viel weniger wichtig als die Konfiguration dieser ganzen Seelenverfassung, die zuerst die römisch-griechische Bildung war, dann durch Aufnahme des Christentums die Bildung des christkatholischen Klerus, der christkatholischen Priesterschaft geworden ist. Man muß sie sich ansehen, diese Bildung, wie sie war und wie sie dann fortgelebt hat durch die Jahrhunderte. Wenn wir auf unser heutiges Bildungswesen schauen, so ist das eben etwas Zurückgebliebenes von dem, was dazumal eigentlich Bildung war. Nachdem man damals die ersten elementarsten Kenntnisse, was wir heute den allerersten Volksschulunterricht nennen, absolviert hatte, kam man in die sogenannten Grammatikklassen. Diese Grammatikklassen, die überlieferten einem zunächst den Bau der Sprache. Man lernte in ihnen die Sprache in der richtigen Weise gebrauchen, so wie sie die Dichter, wie sie die Schriftsteller gebraucht hatten. Man eignete sich dann alles andere an, was an Wissenschaften nicht geheimgehalten wurde, denn vieles wurde eben in jenen Zeiten von gewissen Geheimschulen an Wissenschaft noch geheimgehalten. Was nicht geheimgehalten wurde, wurde durch die Grammatikklassen überliefert, aber durch Vermittlung des sprachlichen Elementes. Und wenn jemand zu einer höheren Bildungsstufe kam, wie zum Beispiel Augustinus, dann trat er über aus dem grammatischen Lernen in das rhetorische Lernen. Da kam es darauf an, dafd man vor allen Dingen zu einer gefälligen symbolischen Ausdrucksweise kam, daß man lernte, Perioden in der richtigen Weise zu bilden, daß man namentlich lernte, Perioden zu einem gewissen Ziele zu bringen. Darinnen bestand die Fähigkeit, die sich anzueignen hatte, wer dazumal eben überhaupt nach Bildung strebte.
Man muß einen Sinn dafür haben, was gerade eine solche Bildung im Menschen heranentwickelt. Der Mensch wird durch die bloße grammatische und rhetorische Bildung in einer gewissen Beziehung an die Oberfläche seines Wesens gebracht; viel mehr, als daß er etwa dem Denken obliegen würde, legt er sich hinein in dasjenige, was durch seinen Mund ertönt. Er richtet sein Augenmerk viel mehr auf den Bau der Sprache als auf das Gefüge der Gedanken. Und das war durchaus das Charakteristikon dieser alten Bildung, daß nicht auf das innere Seelenerleben als solches gesehen wurde, sondern auf den Bau der Sprache, auf die Gestaltung der Sprache, auf das Wohlgefällige, das sich ausdrückt in der Sprache. Kurz, der Mensch veräußerlichte sich in dieser Bildung. Und im 4. Jahrhundert, während Augustinus, wie wir heute sagen würden, studierte, kann man durchaus merken dieses Veräußerlichen, dieses Leben im Worte, in der Wortwendung, in der Ausdrucksform. Grammatik und Rhetorik war dasjenige, was man zu lernen hatte. Und das hatte seinen guten Grund. Denn, sehen Sie, das, was wir heute unter intelligentem Denken verstehen, das gab es dazumal nicht. Es ist ein Aberglaube, der in der Historie der Menschheit wuchert, der darin besteht, daß man meint, es sei von den Menschen immer so gedacht worden, wie heute gedacht wird. Nein, das ist nicht der Fall. Das Denken, noch bis ins 4. Jahrhundert, das ganze Denken der griechischen Zeit war anders geartet. Gewisse Intimitäten der Sache habe ich in meinen «Rätseln der Philosophie» dargestellt. Der Gedanke wurde nicht durch aktive innere Seelentätigkeit ausgeheckt, wie das bei uns heute der Fall ist, sondern der Gedanke kam selber wie ein Traum über die Menschen. Insbesondere im Oriente war das der Fall, und was als orientalisches Geistesleben auch noch Griechenland angeregt hat, auch noch Rom angeregt hat, das war nicht durch Denken erobert; das war so gekommen, auch wenn es Gedanke war, wie Traumbilder kommen. Und eigentlich unterschieden sich die gelehrten Menschen der orientalischen und südeuropäischen Gegenden von den nördlichen Menschen, die ich Ihnen vorhin geschildert habe, nur dadurch, daß den nördlicheren Menschen diejenigen Bilder kamen, die ich charakterisiert habe, die zuerst Ahnenvorstellungen hervorriefen, dann sich an gewisse Lokalitäten angliederten und mehr oder weniger dann kultisch bildhaft wurden. Diejenigen Vorstellungen, die sich in Asien, in Südeuropa bildeten, waren schon gedankenhaft, aber sie waren nicht Gedanken, durch innere Seelenarbeit, durch innere Intelligenz errungen, sondern innerlich geoffenbarte Gedanken. Man erlebte dasjenige, was man Erkenntnis nannte, und erarbeitete sich nur das Wort, den Satz, die Rede. Man arbeitete nicht in Logik. Logik kam erst durch Aristoteles herauf, als das Griechentum schon im Untergange war. Und was da in der Schönheit der Sprache, in der Rhetorik sich auslebte, das war im wesentlichen römische Bildung, und diese war auch die Bildung des christkatholischen Christentums geworden.
Diese Art, gewissermaßen nicht in sich zu leben, sondern in einem äußerlichen Element, die drückte sich schon aus in der Bildung, die man sich aneignete. Und man kann ganz genau sehen, wie gerade Augustinus auch nach dieser Richtung eine repräsentative Persönlichkeit wird. Charakteristisch in dieser Beziehung sind die Briefe, die sich Hieronymus und Augustinus geschrieben haben, aus denen man sieht, wie diese Leute im 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert oder am Beginne des 5. eigentlich anders miteinander diskutierten, als wir heute diskutieren. Wenn wir heute diskutieren, dann haben wir das Gefühl, daß wir aus einer gewissen Aktivität des Denkens heraus arbeiten. Wenn die Leute des 4., 5. Jahrhunderts miteinander diskutieren, dann hat der eine das Gefühl: Ja, ich habe mir eine Ansicht gebildet über einen gewissen Punkt, aber vielleicht gibt mein Organismus nicht das Richtige her. Ich will den anderen hören; aus seinem Organismus kann vielleicht etwas anderes aufsteigen. Es ist ein viel realeres Element inneren Erlebens, in dem diese Menschen drinnenstehen. Aber was so nach der einen Seite eine Folge hat, das zeigt sich wiederum in dem Verhalten des Augustinus bei seiner Verurteilung der Häretiker der verschiedensten Sorten. Da sehen wir, wie aus dem alten, noch lebendigen Elemente, namentlich aus dem lebendigen Volkstum aufsteigend, sich Leute heraufentwickeln wie die Priester der Donatisten, wie Pelagins, die Pelagianer, wie einige andere noch. Wir sehen, wie diese Leute, trotzdem sie glauben, absolut Christen zu sein, geltend machen, daß es ja aus dem Menschen heraus kommen müsse, was sein Verhältnis zur Gerechtigkeit, zur Sünde und so weiter sei. Und so sehen wir eine ganze Reihe von Leuten, welche zum Beispiel nicht glauben können, daß es einen Sinn habe, die Kinder zu taufen und ihnen damit Vergebung der Erbsünde zu erwirken. Wir sehen, wie das gegenüber dem von Rom ausgehenden Christentum eingewendet wird; wir sehen, wie der Pelagianismus Ausbreitung gewinnt, wie Augustinus aber durchaus als ein richtiger Vertreter des christlich-katholischen Elementes sich gegen solche Anschauungen wendet. Er wendet sich gegen eine solche Auffassung der Erbsünde, die etwas zu tun hat mit der menschlichen Subjektivität. Er wendet sich dagegen, daß überhaupt aus den individuellen menschlichen Impulsen heraus die Zugehörigkeit zur geistigen Welt oder zum Christus kommen könne. Er arbeitet darauf hin, daß die Kirche allmählich aufgehe in der äußeren Institution. Es kommt nicht darauf an, was da in dem Kinde steckt, sondern es kommt darauf an, daß die Kirche besteht als äußere Einrichtung. Nicht darauf kommt es an, daß die Taufe etwas bedeutet für die Seele, für das Erlebnis der Seele, sondern darauf kommt es an, daß eine äußere Kircheneinrichtung da ist, durch welche die Taufe vollzogen wird. Was der Mensch seelisch wert ist, der da drinnensteckt im Leibe, darauf kommt es weniger an, als daß sich der allgemeine Geist ausbreitet, der in dem Sakramente lebt, das sich gewissermaßen als ein abstraktes Sakrament ergießt über die Menschheit. Der einzelne Mensch spielt keine Rolle, sondern dasjenige, was sich als eine Summe, ein System, ein Gewebe von abstrakten Dogmen und Vorstellungen über den Menschen erstreckt. Außerordentlich gefährlich erscheint es auch Augustinus, wenn geglaubt wird, daß etwa der Mensch erst vorbereitet, daß seine Seele reif gemacht werden müsse und er dann erst die Taufe empfangen solle. Denn darum handelt es sich nicht, was der Mensch in seinem Inneren will, sondern darum handelt es sich, daß der Mensch eingefügt werde dem Reiche Gottes, das, abgesehen vom Menschen, objektiv existiert. Und das ist im wesentlichen das Milieu, in dem athanasianisches Christentum lebt, im Gegensatz zu dem anderen, das vom Nordosten her kommt und das in gewissen volkstümlichen Elementen lebt. Aber die Kirche hat es verstanden, dasjenige, was da abstraktes Element war, in die Kultformen zu kleiden, die wiederum von unten aufstiegen. Damit hat sich die Kirche die Möglichkeit geschaffen, in diesem europäischen Elemente, aus dem die antike Bildung zunächst weggefegt war, ihre Ausbreitung zu gewinnen. Und namentlich hat sie diese Ausbreitung gewinnen können dadurch, daß sie die breiten Kreise des Volkes im Grunde genommen aus der eigentlichen religiösen Substantialität und aus der Bildungssubstantialität ausgeschlossen hat. Eine ungeheure Bedeutung hat es auch, daß die Substantialität des Christentums durch die folgenden Jahrhunderte so fortgepflanzt wird, daß dazu die lateinische Sprache dient, und dies gerade vom 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert ab. Wir sehen gewissermaßen eine Strömung hinfluten über den Köpfen der Menschen im Grunde genommen bis ins 15. Jahrhundert hinein. Denn, was die Geschichte gewöhnlich erzählt, sind ja nur die äußeren Ausgestaltungen dessen, was sich da in den Seelen der Menschen vollzogen hat. Man kann sagen: In einem viel höheren Sinne, als jemals Geheimlehren in antiken Geheimschulen geheimgehalten worden sind, ist das Christentum geheimgehalten worden, namentlich bis in das 11., 12. Jahrhundert, von denen, die es ausgebreitet haben. Denn nur die äußere Kultussymbolik, die drang hinunter in das Volk. Und das, was sich fortpflanzt, was aber auch gleichzeitig alle Wissenschaft, die von der Antike heraufkam, für sich in Anspruch nahm und sie in das lateinische Sprachgewand kleidete, das war die Kirche, die Kirche als etwas, was über der eigentlichen Menschheitsentwickelung schwebte. Und alle Jahrhunderte, vom 4. bis 14., stehen eigentlich in dem Zeichen dieser beiden Parallelströmungen. Die äußere Geschichte, auch die Geistesgeschichte, sie verzeichnen traditionell im Grunde genommen nur das, was, ich möchte sagen, mehr in die Öffentlichkeit heraussickert aus der lateinisch-kirchlichen Strömung. Daher bekommen die Menschen aus der heutigen Geschichtsschreibung kaum eine Vorstellung von dem, was sich in den breiten Massen abgespielt hat.
Was sich in diesen breiten Massen abgespielt hat, das ist etwa so vorzustellen: Zunächst hatten sich wirklich nur Dorfgemeinden gebildet, und das ganze mittlere Europa, westliche Europa und auch das südliche Europa war so besiedelt, daß die Städte zunächst eine geringe Rolle spielten. In kleinen Gemeinden, in Dorfgemeinden entwickelte sich das hauptsächlichste Leben. Und während sich dieses Leben in Dorfgemeinden bildete - was damals an Städten bestand, waren ja im Grunde genommen nur größere Dorfgemeinden -, da breitete sich in den größeren Dorfgemeinden, wie ich geschildert habe, über die Köpfe der Menschen hinweg, aber durch den Kultus suggestiv auf die Menschen wirkend, die christkatholische Kirche aus; die Menschen aber, die nur die symbolischen Handlungen sahen, die Menschen, die am Kultus teilnahmen, die aufblicken konnten zu dem, was sie nicht verstanden, die entwickelten für sich dennoch ein geistiges Leben. Ein reiches Geistesleben entwickelte sich dazumal durch Europa, ein Geistesleben, das vor allen Dingen unter dem Einflusse der Natur der Menschen selber stand. Im Grunde genommen etwas ganz anderes war die Teilnahme dieser Dorfgemeindemenschen an der Ausbreitung der christkatholischen Lehre. Alle die Dinge sind in einem falschen Lichte dargestellt worden, wie sie etwa an die Person des Bonifatius angeknüpft werden oder dergleichen. Das aber, was sich in diesen Dorfgemeinden abspielte, das war ein inneres Seelenleben, ganz durchzogen von den Nachklängen der Deutungen des Lokalgöttlichen oder des Lokalgeistigen. Überall sah man Andeutungen von dem oder jenem. Ein zauberisches Leben entwickelte sich in den Menschen. Überall lebte der Mensch ahnungsvoll und erzählte seinen Mitmenschen von seinen Ahnungen. Die Ahnungen lebten sich aus in Sagen oder in geheimnisvollen Andeutungen von dem, was der eine da oder dort geistig erlebt hatte während seiner Arbeit und dergleichen mehr.
Aber ein merkwürdiges Element durchzieht diese Überreste des alten Ahnens und hellseherischen Traumlebens, das sich durchaus in den Dorfgemeinden fortpflanzte, während die katholische Lehre über den Köpfen hinüberzog, ein Merkwürdiges lebte sich da aus, aus dem man erkennen kann, wie eigentlich die menschliche Organisation über Europa hin an diesem eigentümlichen Geistesleben beteiligt war. Es lebte sich da etwas aus, das nach zwei Richtungen hin die innere Seelenverfassung in einer ganz besonderen Art zeigt. Erstens, wenn die Leute die wichtigsten ihrer Ahnungen, die wichtigsten ihrer Träume, die aber immer an Lokalitäten anknüpften, aussprachen, wenn sie schilderten, was sie da im halbwachen oder im schlafenden Zustande erlebt hatten, dann hing das immer mit Erlebnissen zusammen, mit Fragen, die ihnen aus der geistigen Welt heraus gestellt wurden, oder auch mit Aufgaben, die ihnen gegeben wurden, oder mit Dingen, wo ihre Klugheit eine Rolle spielte. Man sieht aus der ganzen Art, wie die Erzählungen sind, die auf dem Grunde des Volkes noch im 19. Jahrhundert zu eruieren waren, wie die Menschen, wenn sie ins Sinnen und Träumen kamen und ihre legendenhaften Sagen und ihre mythenhaften Dinge ausbildeten, wie da von den drei Gliedern des Menschen eigentlich noch nicht so stark das Nerven-Sinnessystem wirkte, das mehr der Außenwelt zugekehrt ist, sondern es wirkte das rhythmische System. Und indem das rhythmische System aus der Organisation der Leute heraus besonders angespornt war, entstand in diesen hellseherischen Träumen, die im Dorfe von Mensch zu Mensch erzählt wurden, das, womit sich die Leute Schauer oder auch Freude und Genuß und Schönheit gegenseitig mitteilten. In alledem lebte immer etwas von dem Feineren der Fragestellungen, die aus der geistigen Welt heraus kamen. Die Leute mußten Rätsel lösen im Halbtraume, kluge Handlungen ausführen, mußten etwas überwinden und dergleichen. Immer ist etwas Rätselhaftes da drinnen in diesem Traumesleben, das sich da entwickelte.
Das ist die physiologische Grundlage des sich weiter ausdehnenden geistigen Erlebens dieser Menschen, die noch in Dorfgemeinden lebten, in deren Erleben sich allerdings auch hineinerstreckten die Taten, die ihnen die Geschichte erzählt, von Karl dem Großen und anderen. Aber das sind Dinge, die sich ja nur an der Oberfläche des Erlebens abspielen, die allerdings tief eingreifen in die einzelnen Schicksale, die aber nicht die Hauptsache sind. Die Hauptsache spielt sich in Dorfgemeinden ab, und da entwickelte sich neben dem wirtschaftlichen Leben bei den Menschen ein Geistesleben, wie ich das heute andeutete. Und dieses Geistesleben geht im Grunde fort bis ins 9., 10., 11. Jahrhundert. Allerdings fließt allmählich einiges von dem, was sich in den Köpfen der Menschen der Oberschichte entwickelt hat, auch in die Unterschichten hinunter, indem sich zusammengestaltet, was da in gespenstisch-zauberisch anmutender Weise aus den Erzählungen der Menschen herauskommt und zusammenfließt mit dem Christus und den Taten des Christus, und es wird auch zuweilen übertönt, was von den Menschen selber kommt, von dem, was aus der Bibel, aus den Evangelien kommt. Dann aber sehen wir, wie zunächst in das soziale Denken aufgenommen wird, was das christliche Element ist. Wir sehen es am «Heliand» und an anderen Dichtungen, die aus dem Christentum heraus entstanden sind, die aber immer eigentlich von Geistlichen in das Volk hineingetragen werden, während das Volk den Geistlichen entgegenträgt das eigene Geistesleben, von dem ich gesprochen habe.
Nun, wenn wir dann ins 10., 11. Jahrhundert kommen, dann allerdings sehen wir das äußere Leben verändert. Wir sehen, wie schon früher, aber in dieser Zeit besonders stark sich das Leben in den Städten konzentriert. Das Leben, das ich geschildert habe, dieses bildhafte wache Träumen, das ist etwas, was durchaus an das Land gebunden ist. Als sich dann so im 9., 10., 11., 12. Jahrhundert allmählich die größeren Städte über das ganze Gebiet, das ich in dieser Weise charakterisiert habe, hinerstreckten, da konzentrierte sich in den Städten auch eine andere Art des Denkens. Die Menschen in den Städten dachten anders. Sie waren entfernt von den Orten, in denen sich die Lokalreligionen entwickelt hatten. Sie waren wiederum mehr auf das Menschliche angewiesen. Allein, dieses Menschliche, das in den Städten sich entwickelte, das war ja dennoch in einer gewissen Weise unter dem Einflusse des eben Geschilderten, denn in den Städten siedelten sich ja gewisse Menschen aus den früheren Dorfgemeinschaften an, und solche, die besondere Geistesanlagen hatten, sie brachten immerhin noch einiges mit. Und was sie mitbrachten, war ein inneres Leben der Persönlichkeit, das einen Nachklang darstellte dessen, was auf dem Lande erlebt wurde, das aber jetzt mehr in einer abstrakten Form zum Vorscheine kam. Die Menschen, die abgeschlossen waren von dem Naturdasein und daher nicht mehr in lebendiger Weise dieses Naturdasein mitmachten, die hatten zwar noch die Gedankenformen aus diesem Naturdasein, aber sie entwickelten schon mehr jene Art des Denkens, die nach und nach auf Intelligenz hinausläuft. In den Städten, zunächst im 11., 12., 13. Jahrhunderte, entwickelten sich vorerst Spuren derjenigen Intelligenz, die wir dann im 15. Jahrhundert bei der tonangebenden europäischen Bevölkerung herauskommen sehen. Aber in den Städten vermischte sich wiederum, weil das Leben abstrakter wurde, in einer innigen Weise das, was da herauswuchs aus dem Volkstum, mit dem abstrakten, in die lateinische Sprache gekleideten Elemente der Kirche.
Und so sehen wir, wie in den Städten sich dieses lateinische Wesen in immer stärkerer und immer abstrakterer Form ausbildete. Wir sehen dann, wie die großen, ich möchte sagen, Explosionen des Volkstums von unten heraufschlagen in den verschiedensten Gegenden. Ein großer, gewaltiger Sturm ist das Eintreten Dantes von dem Volkstume aus, auf dem Umwege durch seinen Lehrer, in die Welt der Bildung hinauf. Aber auch das ist im Grunde genommen etwas, was neben vielen anderen Erscheinungen aus dem Volkstum heraufsteigt, und was nur durch die besondere Art und Weise, wie sich lateinisch-romanische Bildung in den Städten zusammengefunden hat mit dem Volkstum, so wurde, wie es heraufkam.
Wir dürfen nun nicht vergessen, daß in dasjenige, was sich da abspielte, noch andere Strömungen hineinkamen. Das ist ja richtig, daf3 die hauptsächlichste Strömung des geistigen Lebens, von der das übrige geistige Leben sozusagen getragen wurde, die Fortsetzung war der Geistesrichtung, in der Augustinus gelehrt hat. Diese beherrschte schließlich alles in den Städten, nicht nur die Bischöfe, . die das geistige Leben, wenn auch in abstrakter Form und über dem Volkstum stehend, doch ihrerseits beherrschten, sondern diese Geistesrichtung, die ja auf ihrem Wege auch alles mitnahm, was aus der Konstitution des Römischen Reiches stammte, beherrschte schließlich auch die Verwaltung. In der Folge bildete sich der Bund heraus zwischen Verwaltungsbeamten und Priesterschaft, die ja im 11. und 12. Jahrhundert besonders mächtig war. Wir sehen, wie andere Ereignisse herausleuchten aus diesem Strome, wie die Kreuzzüge entstehen, die ich Ihnen nicht zu schildern brauche, weil ich ja hauptsächlich auf das Wert legen möchte, was in der äußeren Geschichte verfälscht wird. Aber viel zu wenig gewürdigt werden andere Strömungen, die auch vorhanden waren.
Sehen Sie, da ist zunächst eine Strömung, die eigentlich getragen wird vom Handel, der doch im Grunde genommen immer lebendig war in Europa, zeitweise auch die Donau entlang nach dem Oriente hinüber. Menschen kamen dadurch immer handelnd hin und her, namentlich in der Mitte des Mittelalters. Da wurden orientalische Vorstellungen, allerdings in stark dekadentem Zustande, nach Europa herübergebracht. Und derjenige, der ja vielleicht selber gar nicht im Oriente war, sondern nur mit Leuten vom Oriente gehandelt hatte, der brachte den Leuten nicht nur Spezereien und Gewürze ins Haus, sondern auch geistiges Leben. Das war aber in der Regel etwas, was nuanciert war von dem Orientalischen. Durch ganz Europa ging dieser Zug durch. Er dehnte seine Wirkungen weniger auf diejenigen aus, die in der lateinischen Sprachform die Bildung verbreiteten, weit mehr aber auf alle, die vom Lateinischen nichts verstanden, die unten in den breiten Massen des Volkes waren. In den Städtern und in den draußen gebliebenen Dörflern, da nistete sich ein, was lebendiger Geistverkehr mit dem Oriente war. Und das waren nicht etwa bloß abenteuerliche Erzählungen, die sich da einnisteten, das war ein durchaus die Menschen tief ergreifendes geistiges Leben. Und wollen Sie solche Gestalten, wie später Jakob Böhme, wie Paracelsus, wie zahlreiche andere sind, verstehen, dann müssen Sie darauf Rücksicht nehmen, daß} diese auftauchen noch aus denjenigen Volksmassen, die sich entwickelt hatten ohne das Verständnis für die über die Köpfe hinweggehende lateinische Bildung, die aber durchdrungen wurden in einer gewissen Weise vom Orientalischen. Alles das, was sich da als volkstümliche Alchimie, Astrologie, Deutung des Lebens überhaupt ausgebildet hatte, das war zusammengeflossen aus dem, was ich früher geschildert habe als innere Erlebnisse der Menschen, der Rätsel, die sie erzählten in wachen Träumen, und aus demjenigen, was herübergetragen war an dekadentem orientalischem Geistesleben.
Innerhalb des lateinischen Wesens hatte sich ebensowenig irgend etwas geltend machen können, das denken wollte. Man möchte sagen, wie ein Meteor war die Logik des Aristoteles aufgetreten. Wir sehen noch Augustinus wenig von dieser Logik berührt. Vom Griechischen wendete man sich überhaupt ab mit dem 4. Jahrhundert; und später hat der Kaiser Justinian ja die Philosophenschule in Athen schließen lassen, hat dazu beigetragen, daß Origines, der noch vieles mit in das Christentum gebracht hat, was orientalische Bildung war, was ehemaliges Geistesleben war, unter die Ketzer versetzt worden ist. Und die griechischen Philosophen wurden vertrieben. Was sie von Aristoteles hatten, wurde nach Asien hinüber verschleppt. Die griechischen Philosophen fanden eine Stätte in Persien und führten dort in Asien die Akademie von Gondishapur, welche vor allen Dingen damit beschäftigt war, die alte orientalische, schon in Dekadenz gekommene geistige Kultur mit dem Aristotelismus zu durchdringen, sie in einer ganz neuen Form zu gestalten. Was wiederum durch diese Akademie von Gondishapur, die sich mit riesiger Schnelligkeit in eine logische Gedankenform hineinentwickelte, gerettet worden ist, ist der Aristotelismus; der ist da erst wiederum in seiner eigenen Gestalt erstanden. Die Christen hatten ihn ja nicht fortgepflanzt. In seiner eigenen Gestalt kam er auf dem Umwege durch Afrika, Spanien, Westeuropa in das lateinisch-kirchliche Leben hinein. Und so sehen wir im Westen, namentlich auch von dieser Gondishapur-Strömung, von diesem Arabismus in einer durchaus philosophischen Form, in einer Form, die eine lebendige Weltanschauung trägt, aber eine ganz abstrakte, beeinflußt das, was, wie gesagt, über den Köpfen dahinströmt.
Ich habe Ihnen die beiden Strömungen nunmehr charakterisiert, die eine, die sich über den Köpfen abspielte, die andere, die sich in den Herzen, in den Seelen abspielte. Die wirkten zusammen, und es ist außerordentlich charakteristisch, daß eine im Absterben begriffene Sprache die Bildung aus dem Altertum fortpflanzt. Allerdings fließt dann hinein, was durch die Renaissance gekommen ist. Aber ich kann ja heute nicht alles darstellen. Im wesentlichen möchte ich mich an einige der Hauptlinien halten, die uns gerade interessieren müssen. Das bestand nebeneinander bis ins 15. Jahrhundert hinein.
Dann geschieht etwas, was außerordentlich bedeutsam ist. Man möchte sagen, das, was antiker Gedanke war, ein noch eingegebener Gedanke, ein Gedanke, der halb Vision war, das wurde allmählich in abstrakte Sprachformen gekleidet in demjenigen, was dann als christliche Philosophie entstand, als christliches Geistesleben, als Weltanschauung, durch die Schulen getragen, aus denen weiterhin sogar das Universitätswesen herausgewachsen ist. In diesem Elemente lebte durchaus auf grammatikalisch-rhetorische Weise fort der Romanismus, die Antike. Es lebte fort nicht ein gedankliches Element, sondern das Kleid eines gedanklichen Elementes.
In dem, was die volkstümliche Strömung war, wurde aber geboren, und zwar zum ersten Male in der ganzen Menschheitsentwickelung, der durch subjektive Aktivität erarbeitete Gedanke. Aus diesem gespenstisch-zauberischen, ahnenden Wesen, vermischt mit Orientalismus, aus diesem Wesen heraus, das namentlich darinnen sich auslebte, daß es Naturtatsachen deutete, wurde der Gedanke geboren, der aktive Gedanke. Und diese Geburt des Gedankens, ich möchte sagen, aus träumerisch-mystischem Wesen heraus, die vollzieht sich darin gegen das 15. Jahrhundert hin. Aber bis dahin ist schon etwas anderes erstarkt, das sich nun neben dem römischen Priesterwesen in lateinische Bildung gekleidet hat, nämlich das römisch-juristische Wesen.
In einer ganz besonders gut ausgebildeten Methode hat sich dasjenige, was als Strömung über die Köpfe der Menschen gegangen ist, überall ausbreiten können, zuerst in den Dorfgemeinden, dann in den Städten, und jetzt verbündete es sich in dem neu angebrochenen Zeitalter nach dem 15. Jahrhundert mit einer ganz andersartigen Strömung, die jetzt entstand. Städte waren bereits entstanden. In den Städten war man stolz auf die Individualität, auf die Freiheit. Man sieht das den Porträtbildern an, die aus dieser Zeit geblieben sind, und an vielem anderem. Aber die Dorfgemeinden sind draußen geblieben. Das Territorialfürstentum macht sich geltend. Diejenigen, die in den Dörfern draußen allmählich in Opposition gegen die Städte gekommen sind, die fanden in den Menschen, die sich ihrer gegen die Städte annehmen wollten oder anzunehmen vorgaben, ihre Führer. Und vom Lande herein, vom Dorf herein wurden die Städte in größere Gefüge, in größere Administrationsgefüge eingegliedert, in die hineinkam dann das römisch-juristische Wesen. Es entstand der moderne Staat, dieser moderne Staat, der von den Landgemeinden herein gebildet worden ist, indem das, was von dem Land aus wiederum die Städte eroberte, durchzogen worden ist von dem, was jetzt auf dem Boden des Lateinischen als römisch-Juristisches Wesen heraufkam. Nun war dieses Element schon so stark, daß keine Geltung mehr haben konnte, was jetzt noch aus der volkstümlichen Strömung an die Oberfläche wollte, was in den aufgerüttelten Zeiten, wie man es nannte, unter der Landbevölkerung zum Beispiel Englands und Böhmens auftauchte, was im Hussitismus, im Wycliffismus, was in der böhmischen Brüderschaft auftauchte. Das alles konnte nicht aufkommen. Es konnte nur aufkommen dasjenige Wesen, das eben zusammenfloß mit dem römischen Wesen, mit dem römischadministrativen Wesen.
Und so sehen wir, wie zunächst glimmend blieb unter der Oberfläche, was volkstümliches Element ist, was sich den Gedanken eigentlich als Realität eroberte, was sich wie im Widerstande geltend machte gegen das römisch-lateinische Wesen. Man sieht, wie das Geistesleben da von zwei Seiten aufeinanderplatzt. Aus dem römisch-lateinischen Wesen entwickelt sich der Nominalismus, für den allgemeine Begriffe nur Namen sind, wie man aus der Grammatik und Rhetorik heraus denken mußte. Wie man da nur zum Nominalismus kommen konnte, so entwickelte sich bei denen, die doch einen Funken Volkstum in sich hatten, wie Albertus Magnus und Thomas von Aquino, ein Realismus, der das gedankliche Element wie etwas ausgesprochen Reales empfand. Aber zunächst siegte in einer gewissen Weise der Nominalismus. In der geschichtlichen Entwickelung der Menschheit ist ja alles in einer gewissen Beziehung auch notwendig, und wir sehen, daß das abstrakte Element um so abstrakter geworden ist, als es durch das tote Element des Lateinischen heraufgetragen worden ist bis in das 15., 16. Jahrhundert, daß das sich zwar dann befruchten läßt von dem, was als Gedanken geboren worden ist, daf} es rechnet mit der Geburt des Gedankens, daß es aber den Gedanken kleidet in abstrakte Formeln, in Abstraktionen. Und unter diesem Einflusse stehen zunächst die folgenden Jahrhunderte, das 15., 16., 17., 18. Jahrhundert, unter dem Einflusse nämlich des aus dem uralten, gotisch-germanischen Wesen heraus geborenen Gedankens, der aber gekleidet war in römische logische Formeln, eigentlich grammatisch-rhetorische Formeln, die sich aber jetzt, nachdem sie vom Gedanken befruchtet worden waren, logische Formeln nennen konnten. Das wurde jetzt innerliches menschliches Denken. Mit diesem Denken dachte man nun zunächst, aber es hatte an sich selber keinen Inhalt. Alle alten Weltanschauungen brachten zu dem, was innerlich erlebt wurde, zugleich Weltengeheimnisse in ihrem Inhalt mit. Sogar die Gedanken waren noch inhaltsvolle bis zum 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert.
Dann kam die Zeit, die gewissermaßen das Spätere im Schoße trug, in der sich in einer toten Sprache immer mehr und mehr das entwickelte, was schon im Ausgangspunkte, in Rhetorik und Grammatik, höchstens in Dialektik gegeben war. Das entwickelte sich, das wurde dann befruchtet von der Gedankenkraft, die von unten heraufkam, und das ist es, dessen sich der Mensch nun zunächst bemächtigte, das aber durch sich selber jetzt keinen Inhalt hatte. Man tradierte sozusagen den Realismus, meinte aber den Nominalismus und glaubte an den Nominalismus, und mit diesem Nominalismus eroberte man sich zunächst die Natur.
Durch das, was das eigentliche Europa auf die geschilderte Weise hat hervorbringen können, war der Gedanke als solcher, als inneres Seelenleben, als Denkkraft geboren, brachte aber seinerseits auch keinen Inhalt mit. Es muß dieser Inhalt außen gesucht werden. Mit diesem inhaltsleeren Denken eroberte man sich vom 15. Jahrhunderte an die Natur, die äußere Naturgesetzlichkeit. Aber in der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts, da fing man an, gewahr zu werden: Ja, mit deinem Denken eroberst du dir dasjenige, was Naturgesetze sind, das, was außer dir ist, aber das Denken selber, das darf nicht aus sich zu irgend etwas kommen. - Und so lebte man sich allmählich in die Stimmung hinein, die alles aus dem Denken aussonderte, was nicht von außen aufgenommen wurde. Andererseits lebte man sich in den religiösen Glauben hinein, der nichts zu tun haben sollte mit wissenschaftlicher Erkenntnis, weil das leer gewordene Denken sich nur mit den äußeren Naturtatsachen und Wesenheiten erfüllen durfte. Der Glaube mußte geschützt sein in seinem Inhalte, weil er sich auf das Übersinnliche beziehen sollte. Dieses leere Denken, das konnte sich aber eben deshalb auf das Sinnliche beziehen, weil es selber keinen Inhalt hervorbrachte. Der Glaube wiederum konnte sich nur anfüllen mit den alten Traditionen, mit dem Inhalte der vergangenen orientalischen Kultur, die sich fortpflanzte.
Ebenso war es mit der Kunst. In den älteren Zeiten sieht man Kunst innig verwandt mit der Religion; es leben sich die religiösen Vorstellungen in den Kunstwerken aus. Man sehe, wie die Vorstellungen von den griechischen Göttern sich in den griechischen Dramatikern und Plastikern ausleben. Die Kunst ist etwas, was im ganzen Gefüge der Weltanschauung, des Geisteslebens drinnensteht. Die Renaissance faßt die Kunst schon als ein Äußerliches auf.
Im 19. Jahrhundert sehen wir immer mehr und mehr, wie die Menschen froh sind, wenn ihnen in der Kunst auch mal etwas geboten wird, das bloße Phantasie ist, an das sie nicht wie an der Realität festzuhalten haben, etwas, das sie auf keine Wirklichkeit verweist. Wie einzelne moderne Einsiedler, möchte ich sagen, stehen dann solche Menschen da wie Goethe, der da sagt: «Wem die Natur ihr offenbares Geheimnis zu enthüllen anfängt, der empfindet eine unwiderstehliche Sehnsucht nach ihrer würdigsten Auslegerin, der Kunst.» «Das Schöne», sagt Goethe, «ist eine Manifestation geheimer Naturgesetze, die uns ohne dessen Erscheinung ewig wären verborgen geblieben.» Und merkwürdig ist es, wie Goethe in anderer Art als die anderen in die Vergangenheit zurück will, um zu einem Inhalte zu kommen in der Zeit des leeren, sich nur mit der äußeren Sinneswelt anfüllenden Verstandes. Er sehnt sich zurück nach Griechenland, nach der griechischen Welt. Und als er in Rom einen Nachklang empfindet von dem, was die griechische Kunst noch aus der ganzen Tiefe der Weltanschauung heraus geleistet hatte, da schrieb er die Worte nieder: «Da ist die Notwendigkeit, da ist Gott.» - Aus der Kunst heraus enthüllte sich für ihn, was er als die Geistigkeit der Welt empfinden wollte.
Aber immer mehr und mehr bekam man doch die dunkle, unbestimmte Empfindung: Dieses Denken, das man hat, das ist geeignet für die Außenwelt, aber es ist nicht dafür geeignet, aus sich selbst zu einem inneren geistigen Inhalte zu kommen. Und so sehen wir denn die zweite Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts ablaufen. Ich möchte sagen, wie wir gestern andeuten konnten: Die Geister der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts - man braucht nur auf Flegel oder SaintSimon oder selbst Spencer hinzublicken -, die glaubten noch aus demjenigen, was sie seelisch erleben konnten, etwas herausholen zu können als Weltanschauung oder auch als soziale Lebensanschauung. Das vermeinten die Menschen in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts nicht mehr. Aber es wirkte etwas nach von dem, was aus dem Unbewußten heraus den Gedanken geboren hatte. Warum hat in den ahnenden Träumen der Dorfbewohner über ganz Europa bis ins 12. Jahrhundert hin etwas gewirkt von innerem Rätsellösen, von innerer Klugheit, die angewendet worden ist auf Erlebnisse an allerlei verschmitzten Rätselfragen? Weil sich in dieser Zeit der Gedanke, das Nachdenken, das denkende Arbeiten gebar. Das wurde damals angebahnt. Und jetzt sehen wir, wie man in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts zuletzt ganz verzweifelt am Denken. Wir sehen überall die Deklamationen über die Grenzen des Naturerkennens auftauchen. Und mit derselben Starrheit und Dogmatik, mit der einst die Scholastiker davon geredet haben, daß die Vernunft nicht hineinkommen könne in das Übersinnliche, so sprach zum Beispiel Da Bois-Reymond davon, daß die wissenschaftliche Forschung nicht zum Wesen der Materie und des Bewußtseins vordringen könne. Ich möchte sagen, früher hat sich die Art der Grenzfestsetzung auf das Übersinnliche bezogen, jetzt bezog sie sich auf das, was hinter dem Sinnlichen stecken sollte. Aber auf allen möglichen anderen Gebieten sehen wir dieselbe Erscheinung auftreten.
Ranke, der Geschichtsschreiber in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts, ist ja in dieser Weise besonders charakteristisch. Er drückt sich einmal so aus, daß er sagt: Die Geschichte hat zu erforschen die äußeren Ereignisse, auch in derjenigen Zeit, in der sich das Christentum auszubreiten beginnt. Man hat auf dasjenige zu sehen, was sich da im Äußeren an politischen, an sozialen Ereignissen und an Ereignissen des äußeren Kulturlebens abspielt. Dasjenige aber, was sich davor im Verlauf der Menschheitsentwickelung durch Christus abgespielt hat, das rechnet Ranke zu der Urwelt, nicht im zeitlichen Sinne, sondern zu der Welt, die hinter dem Erforschbaren steht. Wir sehen, der Naturforscher Du Bois-Reymond sagt Ignorabimus gegenüber Materie und Bewußtsein. Die Naturforschung kann in die Weite gehen; aber was da ist, wo Materie spukt, was da ist, wo Bewußtsein entsteht, da setzt Du Bois-Reymond seine sieben Welträtsel hin, da spricht er sein Ignorabimus. Und derjenige, der aus demselben Geiste heraus als Historiker wirkt, Leopold von Ranke, der sagt: In alles das, was an Dokumenten existiere und erreichbar sei, könne historische Forschung hineinleuchten, aber hinter dem, was da als äußere historische Tatsache wirkt, stehen solche Ereignisse, die wie die Urwelt erscheinen. - Was dem Historischen so zugrunde liegt wie für Du Bois-Reymond dasjenige, was jenseits der Grenzen des Naturerkennens liegt, das nennt Ranke die Urwelt. Da drinnen liegen die Christus-Geheimnisse, da liegen die Religionsgeheimnisse aller Völker. Da sagt der Historiker Ignorabimus. Ignorabimus der Naturforscher, Ignorabimus der Historiker, das ist die Stimmung des ganzen geistigen Lebens der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts.
Sehen Sie überall hin, wo Sie dieses geistige Leben wahrnehmen, bis in die Wagnersche Musik hinein, bis in Nietzsches Priestertum, überall erscheint diese Stimmung. Der eine glaubt sich in gewisse musikalische Träume hinein flüchten zu müssen, der andere leidet an demjenigen, was sich da abspielt in der Ignorabimuswelt. Der Agnostizismus wird tonangebend, der Agnostizismus wird Politik, wird staatsgestaltend. Und wenn da einer etwas Positives machen will, stützt er sich nicht auf irgendeinen Gnostizismus, sondern auf den Agnostizismus. Der Marxismus stützt sich, sagte ich schon gestern, wie ein Stratege auf dasjenige, was er an Instinkten vorfindet, nicht auf das, was er an Überirdischem hereinbringen will. Wir sehen, wie überall die Geistigkeit zurückgedrängt wird, wie der Agnostizismus Wirklichkeiten gestaltend wird.
So muß man verstehen das neuzeitliche Geistesleben. Man wird es nur im richtigen Sinne deuten, wenn man es herleitet aus seiner Entstehung von dem 4. nachchristlichen Jahrhundert her, wenn man weiß, da kommt die Form herauf, das, was dann später als Nominalismus lebt, was als blofßes juristisches und logisches Formenwesen heraufkommt, und der Gedanke wird geboren auf die Art, wie ich es gezeigt habe. Dieser Gedanke ist aber noch immer im Grunde genommen nur so weit geboren, als ihn der Formalismus, als ihn das leere Denken gebrauchen kann. Er schlummert in den Untergründen der zivilisierten Menschheit. Er muß auf die Höhe herauf.
Das ist es, was uns eine wirkliche Geschichtsbetrachtung lehrt, wenn wir mit dem Lichte der Geistesforschung in das hineinleuchten, was seit dem 4. Jahrhunderte bis zu unserer Gegenwart der Menschheit vorgeschwebt hat. Da können wir wissen, was obenauf ist. Allerdings ist der Gedanke fruchtbar geworden in der Naturwissenschaft, weil er befruchtet worden ist als der aus der Gedankenkraft der Menschennatur auf die geschilderte Weise herausgeborene Gedanke. Aber jetzt in der Zeit des Elendes, in der Zeit der Not muß die Menschheit sich erinnern, daß der Gedanke, der zunächst nur befruchten durfte den Formalismus, der nur befruchten durfte als Kraft das leere Denken, das von außen die Naturerkenntnis aufnimmt, dieser Gedanke, der ausgemündet ist in den naturwissenschaftlichen, in den historischen Agnostizismus, dieser Gedanke muß sich in sich selbst erkraften, muß wiederum zum Schauen werden, muß sich in übersinnliche Welten erheben. Daß dieser Gedanke da ist, daß dieser Gedanke schon geschaffen hat an dem naturwissenschaftlichen Erkennen, daß aber seine eigentliche Kraft noch tief unten im Bewußtsein der Menschheitsentwickelung liegt, das muß man als historisches Faktum erkennen, dann wird man Vertrauen fassen zu der inneren Kraft der Geistigkeit, dann wird man sich zur Geistigkeit hinwenden; dann wird man nicht aus nebuloser Mystik, sondern aus der Klarheit des Gedankens eine Geisteswissenschaft begründen, die auch im Gedanken tätig sein kann, die in die sozialen, in die sonstigen menschlichen Institutionen hineinwirken kann. Man sagt immerzu, die Geschichte soll Lehrmeisterin werden. Nicht dadurch kann sie Lehrmeisterin werden, daß sie uns das alte Vergangene vor Augen führt, sondern daß sie uns befähigt, aus den Untergründen des Daseins Neues herauszufinden. Nach einem solchen Neuen sucht, nach einem solchen Schauen sucht dasjenige, was von dieser Stätte ausgehen will. Und das kann sich rechtfertigen nicht nur aus dem Verkünden der geisteswissenschaftlichen Methode, sondern auch aus einer richtigen historischen Betrachtungsweise.
Mit einigen Linien wollte ich das zunächst andeuten. Ich hoffe, daß diese Dinge später genauer ausgeführt werden können. Die Naturwissenschaft und die weltgeschichtliche Entwickelung der Menschheit seit dem Altertum
European intellectual life in the nineteenth century in relation to its origins in the fourth century II
Yesterday I attempted to describe how, roughly in the middle of the past century, a radical change took place in intellectual life, and I then went on to show how the particular configuration of thinking, of intellectual life in general, that can be observed in the 19th century and that experienced this upheaval, can be traced back to another radical Western turning point, which we must seek in the 4th century AD. Now, at first glance, it might seem as if very distant periods of time are being brought too closely together. However, it is precisely this observation that will lead us to certain inner connections in human history. Today we will start from where we ended yesterday, in a certain sense. Yesterday we arrived at the decline of ancient education and the Roman Empire, and we highlighted some aspects that are characteristic of that particular period.
We have placed two representative personalities before our minds, one who developed entirely in the southwest, Augustine, and we compared him with another personality and with the spiritual current from which he grew, with Wulfila, the Gothic Bible translator.
With Augustine, one must above all be clear that he is very much a child of the conditions that developed in the southwest of the European-African civilization of that time. Those people who at that time aspired to a higher education found this education only by being brought together with what had long since developed in a certain upper class of the human population as a worldview and, in a certain sense, as literature, art, and science. Even what we know as Greek education is only conceivable because it was the property of an upper class of humans who left the coarser work and the coarser tasks to the slaves. And Roman education is even more inconceivable without widespread slavery. This education was alive because the people who possessed it were deprived above all of what prevailed as a way of thinking and feeling among the broad masses of the population. But one must not imagine that there was no intellectual life among the broad masses of the population. It was certainly there. There was even an extraordinarily strong intellectual life, an intellectual life that, however, was more like the mother soil, the mother soil of an intellectual life that had remained at an earlier stage of development, in comparison to the other, the upper-class education, but nevertheless definitely an intellectual life.
This spiritual life has become little known in history, but it is very similar to that which is now being carried into the southern regions of Europe by the so-called barbarian peoples who were driven into migration by the advance of the Asian population. We must try to form as concrete a mental image as possible of this spiritual life. Let us try to do so with the peoples who advanced after the Roman Empire.
If we consider the peoples who migrated as Goths, Vandals, Lombards, Heruli, and so on, we can say of them: In the period before the migration of peoples began, that is, in the period preceding the 4th century AD, which marks such an important turning point for us, these people in the East had a spiritual life that culminated in certain religious views that permeated everything, extending in their ramifications and in their emotional sequences into everyday activities. In certain religious mental images, I say. The peoples who had begun to migrate had already been settled for a long time before the migration began. During this settled period – which can be ascertained not only through spiritual science, but also through the echoes of the legends and myths that lived on among these peoples – they went through what the Oriental peoples, the South-Eastern peoples, from whom the Indian and Persian cultures and so on emerged, had long since gone through in earlier times, and what the southern European and North African peoples had also experienced in much earlier times. These peoples lived in what can be called a religion that was closely connected with their entire blood relations. What they revered were certain family ancestors. But these ancestors were not venerated until many years after they had passed away, after they were dead; and this veneration was by no means based on any abstract ideas, but rather on what was instinctively experienced in dreams — if one does not misunderstand the expression — as dreamlike clairvoyant images. For these were certain mental images that came about in a completely different way than our mental images do today. When we form mental images today, our soul life takes place independently of our physical constitution. We no longer feel the seething and boiling of our physical constitution. These peoples had a certain intense inward feeling for what was going on in their bodies, in which all kinds of world secrets naturally came into play. For it is not only in the chemical retort that the processes of the world operate according to laws, but also in the human body. And just as chemists today try to understand the laws of the world through their abstract minds based on the processes in the test tube, these people tried to penetrate the secrets of the world through what they experienced inwardly, through their own organism, whose inner processes they felt. It was definitely an inner experience, but an inner experience that was still closely connected with physical mental images. And from these images, brought about by the inner ferment of the organism, developed the views and images that these people related to their ancestors. The ancestors were, in a sense, those whose voices could still be heard for centuries through the dream images. The ancestors were the rulers of peoples living in small communities, in village communities. These peoples still had this kind of ancestor worship, an ancestor worship that was alive through dreamlike mental images, when they migrated from Eastern Europe to the West. And when we look at the teachers, the priesthood of these peoples, which reveals another peculiarity of their spiritual life, we find that this priesthood was characterized above all by the advanced spirit of individuals who became priests or teachers called upon to interpret what appeared to individual people in their dream images, which, however, permeated their waking consciousness. These priests were interpreters of what the individual experienced.
Then these peoples began to migrate. During their wanderings, their great spiritual blessing was that they had an inner clairvoyant spiritual life, which was interpreted for them by their priests. This life has been recorded in legends that still exist, especially in the Slavic world, which have been handed down in the Slavic world, so to speak, and in which one can still see that they contain what I have now briefly, albeit sketchily, described.
However, soon after the 4th century, these peoples settled down again. Some disappeared into the population that had long been settled in the south, on the southern peninsulas, in the lower classes of society. For the upper classes had been swept away, so to speak, during the Augustinian period. But they disappeared there. The Goths, among others, disappeared there. But those who populated the countries of Central Europe, those who then settled in the northern part of southern Europe, those who remained, they in turn acquired permanent residences.
And so we see that after the 4th century, this establishment of permanent residences is an essential characteristic of this immigrant population. And now the entire intellectual life of this population changes as a result of the fact that permanent residences have been established. It is very remarkable how radically spiritual life changed as a result, although this was also due to the special disposition of these people. These people had a special racial and ethnic disposition; they still had a much greater freshness within them, a feeling that wanted to live in dreams and experience spiritual reality in dreams, something that had long since transformed into other forms of spiritual life in the southern regions. But they settled down, and their special disposition now caused something else to develop as spiritual life. What had previously been lived out in looking up to the ancestors, what the images of revered forefathers had conjured up in their souls, now became attached to places.
Wherever there was a special thicket of forest, where there were mountains that contained special metal treasures for my sake, where there were places from which one could observe storms particularly well, and the like, these people felt and sensed something sacred about certain places with that deep feeling and sense that had remained to them from their ancient ancestral ideas of reverie. And what had been ancestral gods became local gods, gods of places. What had been local gods became attached to the feelings, to the whole inner soul state that they had brought with them from the worship of their ancestors. I would say that religious ideas lost their temporal character and took on a spatial character. Those who had previously been interpreters of dreams, interpreters of the inner experiences of the soul, now became the guardians of what might be called signs. The special reflection of the sun in this or that waterfall, in other natural phenomena, phenomena of cloud movements in certain valley regions, and so on—I need only hint at these things—now became the object of interpretation, something that was then directly translated into the runic system. For this purpose, sticks were taken from certain trees at special places, and by throwing them down and thereby creating special figures, the keepers were able to interpret the signs that had been created. The entire religion of time was transformed into a religion of space. The entire spiritual life became a local spiritual life. As a result, however, these peoples became more and more capable of being treated in the same way that the Roman Catholic Church, since becoming the state church in the 4th century, had become accustomed to treating the lower classes of the southern peoples who remained after the upper classes had been swept away.
And what did the Church do? In these southern regions, the period that the peoples migrating from the north had gone through was long past. The transition from the time worldview to the space worldview had already taken place in ancient times. And one thing always happens when the time worldview transforms into the space worldview. Something of extraordinary significance happens. A certain living experience is transformed into a symbolic, cultic experience. This had already taken place long ago for the lower strata of the population in southern regions in comparison with those in northern regions. As long as people live in their conceptions of time, priests, those who can be called scholars in the old sense, are interpreters of the corresponding soul life. Priests are concerned with explaining to people what they are experiencing. They were able to do this because people actually lived only in small village communities and the person who was, in a certain sense, the interpreter, the leader of the entire spiritual life, could address individuals or small groups. But at the point in time when this time-world view transitions into the space-world view, this living element is pushed back more. The priest can no longer point to what the individual has experienced, to what the individual tells him, and interpret it for him. What is alive in this way is transformed into something that can be connected to a place and a locality. And through this, the symbolic formation gradually arises, the pictorial representation of what had previously been experienced as alive in the supersensible worlds. This is transformed into something that should now be carried out in cultic acts, in symbolic acts.
And then the development begins again from the other side. Now the human being sees the symbolism and interprets it. What the Roman Catholic Church has developed as a cult has been developed with a precise knowledge of this world-historical course of human development. The transition from the ancient Eucharistic celebrations to the Mass arose because what was a living Eucharist was transformed into a symbolic act, into the Mass. Ancient sacred mystery customs had been incorporated into this Mass sacrifice, which had been passed down and now also flowed down into the lower classes of the population. However, they were interwoven with the new ideas brought by Christianity. They were, in a sense, Christianized. The lower classes of the Roman population provided good material for such an extraction of cultic acts, which were now to symbolically represent the supersensible world. And when the northern peoples had passed over to local spiritual life, these cultic acts could also be transplanted among them, and they began to show understanding for them. This is the basis of the first current that emerged from the 4th century AD.
The second current, which ran parallel to the first for a long time, must be characterized in a different way. In what I have described to you, we can still clearly see how this ancient ancestor cult lived on in the East as it spread towards the declining Roman Empire. This is evident in the Lord's Prayer, as I explained to you yesterday. Among these wandering peoples, Christianity was still very much absorbed into the ancestral and local religion. And that is precisely the essence of Arian Christianity. The dogmatic dispute behind it is less important. What is important for this Arian Christianity, which moved with the Goths and other Germanic peoples from the East to the West, is that Christianity, on a path that did not yet pass through Rome, was immersed in such a lively life that had not yet developed into a cult, in a lively spiritual life that, as I said, was connected to dream experiences, to clairvoyant experiences, if the expression is not misunderstood.
In contrast, the Christianity that Augustine experienced had passed through the education of the upper classes of the southern population. And this Christianity was opposed by all kinds of Eastern cults, all kinds of Eastern religious ideas, which converged in the great city of Rome. Augustine had grown up as a pagan out of these religious ideas, and from them he had turned to Christianity in the way I characterized yesterday. He stands within a spiritual current that was experienced in a completely different way by the individual personalities than the way I have just characterized it as a kind of folk religion that arose from the most elementary forces of the soul life of the people. The spiritual current that Augustine experienced was filtered many times and, as such, rose up into the upper strata. It was then taken over and preserved by the Roman Catholic priesthood. Once again, its content is much less important for the course of world history than the configuration of this entire state of mind, which was first the Roman-Greek education and then, through the adoption of Christianity, became the education of the Christian Catholic clergy, the Christian Catholic priesthood. One must look at this education as it was and how it lived on through the centuries. When we look at our educational system today, it is just a remnant of what education actually was back then. After completing the most elementary knowledge, what we today call the very first elementary school education, one entered the so-called grammar classes. These grammar classes first taught the structure of the language. In them, one learned to use the language correctly, as the poets and writers had used it. One then acquired everything else that was not kept secret in the sciences, for much was still kept secret in those days by certain secret schools of science. What was not kept secret was passed on through the grammar classes, but through the teaching of the linguistic element. And when someone reached a higher level of education, such as Augustine, for example, they moved from grammatical learning to rhetorical learning. There it was important, above all, to arrive at a pleasing symbolic mode of expression, to learn to form sentences in the right way, and, in particular, to learn to bring sentences to a certain goal. This was the skill that had to be acquired by anyone who aspired to education at that time.
One must have a sense of what it is that such an education develops in human beings. Through mere grammatical and rhetorical education, human beings are brought to the surface of their being in a certain way; much more than they are given over to thinking, they immerse themselves in what comes out of their mouths. They focus their attention much more on the structure of language than on the structure of thoughts. And that was the characteristic feature of this old education, that it did not look at the inner experience of the soul as such, but at the structure of language, at the form of language, at what is pleasing in language. In short, man externalized himself in this education. And in the 4th century, while Augustine was studying, as we would say today, one can clearly see this externalization, this life in words, in the use of words, in the form of expression. Grammar and rhetoric were what had to be learned. And there was a good reason for that. For, you see, what we understand today as intelligent thinking did not exist at that time. It is a superstition that has proliferated throughout human history, which consists in believing that people have always thought the way we think today. No, that is not the case. Until the 4th century, the entire way of thinking in the Greek era was different. I have described certain intricacies of this in my “Riddles of Philosophy.” Thought was not concocted through active inner mental activity, as is the case with us today, but thought itself came to people like a dream. This was particularly the case in the Orient, and what inspired Greece and even Rome as Oriental intellectual life was not conquered through thinking; it came about, even if it was thought, like dream images. And actually, the learned people of the Eastern and Southern European regions differed from the Northern people I described to you earlier only in that the Northern people were given the images I have characterized, which first evoked ideas of ancestors, then became attached to certain localities, and then more or less became cultic images. The mental images that formed in Asia and southern Europe were already conceptual, but they were not thoughts achieved through inner soul work or inner intelligence; rather, they were thoughts revealed internally. People experienced what they called knowledge and only worked out the words, the sentences, the speech. People did not work with logic. Logic only came about through Aristotle, when Greek civilization was already in decline. And what was expressed in the beauty of language and rhetoric was essentially Roman education, which had also become the education of Christian Catholic Christianity.
This way of not living within oneself, so to speak, but in an external element, was already expressed in the education that was acquired. And one can see very clearly how Augustine, in particular, became a representative personality in this direction. Characteristic in this regard are the letters that Jerome and Augustine wrote to each other, from which one can see how these people in the 4th century AD or at the beginning of the 5th century actually discussed things differently than we do today. When we discuss things today, we have the feeling that we are working from a certain activity of thought. When people in the 4th and 5th centuries discuss things with each other, one person has the feeling: Yes, I have formed an opinion on a certain point, but perhaps my organism is not giving me the right answer. I want to hear the other person; perhaps something else will arise from his organism. These people are caught up in a much more real element of inner experience. But what has consequences on the one hand is evident in Augustine's behavior when he condemns heretics of various kinds. We see how, out of the old, still living elements, namely out of the living folklore, people develop such as the priests of the Donatists, such as Pelagius, the Pelagians, and some others. We see how these people, even though they believe themselves to be absolutely Christian, assert that it must come from within man himself what his relationship to justice, to sin, and so on, should be. And so we see a whole series of people who, for example, cannot believe that it makes sense to baptize children and thereby obtain forgiveness for original sin. We see how this is used as an objection to the Christianity that emanated from Rome; we see how Pelagianism gained ground, but also how Augustine, as a true representative of the Christian-Catholic element, opposed such views. He opposed such a conception of original sin, which has something to do with human subjectivity. He opposes the idea that belonging to the spiritual world or to Christ can come from individual human impulses at all. He works toward the Church gradually merging into the external institution. It does not matter what is inside the child, but what matters is that the Church exists as an external institution. It does not matter that baptism means something for the soul, for the experience of the soul, but what matters is that there is an external church institution through which baptism is performed. What a person is worth spiritually, what is inside them in their body, is less important than the spread of the general spirit that lives in the sacrament, which pours out over humanity as a kind of abstract sacrament. The individual human being plays no role, but rather that which extends as a sum, a system, a fabric of abstract dogmas and mental images about human beings. Augustine also considers it extremely dangerous to believe that human beings must first be prepared, that their souls must be made ripe, and only then should they receive baptism. For it is not a question of what man wants in his heart, but of man being incorporated into the kingdom of God, which exists objectively, apart from man. And this is essentially the milieu in which Athanasian Christianity lives, in contrast to the other form of Christianity that comes from the northeast and lives in certain popular elements. But the Church understood how to clothe what was an abstract element in cult forms that arose from below. In this way, the Church created the possibility for itself to spread in this European element, from which ancient education had initially been swept away. And it was able to achieve this expansion by excluding the broad masses of the people from the actual religious substance and from the substance of education. It is also of tremendous significance that the substance of Christianity was perpetuated through the following centuries by means of the Latin language, especially from the fourth century AD onwards. We see, as it were, a current flowing over the heads of people, basically until the fifteenth century. For what history usually tells us are only the outer manifestations of what took place in the souls of human beings. One can say that Christianity was kept secret in a much higher sense than any secret teachings in ancient secret schools were ever kept secret, namely until the 11th and 12th centuries, by those who spread it. For only the external symbols of worship penetrated down to the people. And what was propagated, but at the same time claimed for itself all the knowledge that had come down from antiquity and clothed it in Latin, was the Church, the Church as something hovering above the actual development of humanity. And all the centuries, from the 4th to the 14th, are actually marked by these two parallel currents. External history, including intellectual history, traditionally records only what, I would say, seeps out more into the public sphere from the Latin-ecclesiastical current. Therefore, people today have little mental image of what took place among the broad masses.What took place among these broad masses can be imagined as follows: initially, only village communities had formed, and the whole of Central Europe, Western Europe, and also Southern Europe was settled in such a way that cities initially played a minor role. Life mainly developed in small communities, in village communities. And while this life was forming in village communities – what existed as cities at that time were basically just larger village communities – the Christian Catholic Church spread in the larger village communities, as I have described, above the heads of the people, but through the cult, which had a suggestive effect on them. However, the people who only saw the symbolic acts, the people who participated in the cult, who could look up to what they did not understand, nevertheless developed a spiritual life for themselves. A rich spiritual life developed throughout Europe at that time, a spiritual life that was primarily influenced by the nature of the people themselves. The participation of these village communities in the spread of Christian Catholic teaching was fundamentally something quite different. All these things have been presented in a false light, as they are linked to the person of Boniface or the like. But what was happening in these village communities was an inner spiritual life, completely permeated by the echoes of the interpretations of the local divine or the local spirit. Everywhere one saw hints of this or that. A magical life developed in the people. Everywhere, people lived with a sense of foreboding and told their fellow men about their premonitions. These premonitions found expression in legends or in mysterious hints about what one person or another had experienced spiritually during their work and the like.
But a strange element pervades these remnants of the old ancestral and clairvoyant dream life, which continued to propagate in the village communities while Catholic doctrine passed over their heads. Something strange was at work here, from which one can recognize how human organization throughout Europe was actually involved in this peculiar spiritual life. Something was being lived out there that revealed the inner state of the soul in a very special way in two directions. Firstly, when people expressed their most important premonitions, their most important dreams, which were always connected to localities, when they described what they had experienced in a half-awake or sleeping state, this was always connected with experiences with questions that were posed to them from the spiritual world, or with tasks that were given to them, or with things where their intelligence played a role. From the whole nature of the stories that could still be found among the common people in the 19th century, one can see how, when people began to reflect and dream and develop their legendary tales and mythical stories, the three members of the human being did not yet function so strongly, with the nervous-sensory system which is more oriented toward the outside world, but rather the rhythmic system was at work. And because the rhythmic system was particularly stimulated by the organization of the people, these clairvoyant dreams, which were told from person to person in the village, gave rise to what people used to communicate to each other in the form of shivers or joy, pleasure, and beauty. In all of this there was always something of the finer questions that came from the spiritual world. People had to solve riddles in half-dreams, perform clever actions, overcome something, and the like. There is always something mysterious in this dream life that developed there.
This is the physiological basis of the expanding spiritual experience of these people who still lived in village communities, whose experience, however, also extended to the deeds told to them by history, of Charlemagne and others. But these are things that only take place on the surface of experience, which do, however, have a profound effect on individual destinies, but are not the main thing. The main thing takes place in village communities, where, alongside economic life, a spiritual life developed among the people, as I have indicated today. And this spiritual life basically continued into the 9th, 10th, However, some of what developed in the minds of the upper classes gradually trickled down to the lower classes, as what emerged from people's stories in a ghostly, magical way merged with Christ and the deeds of Christ, and at times it drowns out what comes from the people themselves, from the Bible and the Gospels. But then we see how the Christian element is initially absorbed into social thinking. We see this in the “Heliand” and other works of poetry that arose from Christianity but were always actually brought to the people by clergy, while the people brought to the clergy their own spiritual life, which I have spoken about.
Now, when we come to the 10th and 11th centuries, we see that external life has changed. We see how, as before, but particularly strongly in this period, life is concentrated in the cities. The life I have described, this pictorial waking dream, is something that is very much tied to the countryside. Then, in the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries, as the larger cities gradually spread across the entire area I have characterized in this way, a different way of thinking also concentrated in the cities. The people in the cities thought differently. They were far removed from the places where the local religions had developed. They were, in turn, more dependent on humanity. However, this humanity that developed in the cities was still influenced in a certain way by what I have just described, because certain people from the earlier village communities settled in the cities, and those who had special intellectual abilities brought something with them. And what they brought with them was an inner life of personality that was an echo of what had been experienced in the countryside, but now emerged in a more abstract form. People who were cut off from nature and therefore no longer participated in it in a lively way still had the thought forms from this natural existence, but they were already developing a way of thinking that gradually led to intelligence. In the cities, initially in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, traces of the intelligence that we then see emerging in the 15th century among the dominant European population began to develop. But in the cities, because life became more abstract, what grew out of the folk culture mixed intimately with the abstract elements of the Church clothed in the Latin language.
And so we see how this Latin essence developed in the cities in an increasingly stronger and more abstract form. We then see how the great, I would say, explosions of folklore rise up from below in the most diverse regions. Dante's entry from folklore, via detours through his teacher, into the world of education is a great, powerful storm. But this, too, is basically something that arises from the folk culture alongside many other phenomena, and it was only through the special way in which Latin-Roman education came together with the folk culture in the cities that it became what it was.
We must not forget that other currents also flowed into what was happening there. It is true that the main current of intellectual life, which carried the rest of intellectual life, so to speak, was the continuation of the intellectual direction in which Augustine taught. This ultimately dominated everything in the cities, not only the bishops, who, although in an abstract form and standing above the folk culture, nevertheless dominated spiritual life, but this intellectual trend, which in its path also swept away everything that had originated in the constitution of the Roman Empire, ultimately also dominated the administration. As a result, an alliance developed between administrative officials and the priesthood, which was particularly powerful in the 11th and 12th centuries. We see how other events emerge from this stream, such as the Crusades, which I do not need to describe to you, because I would like to focus mainly on what is distorted in external history. But far too little attention is paid to other currents that also existed.
You see, there is first of all a current that is actually carried by trade, which has always been alive in Europe, at times also along the Danube towards the Orient. As a result, people were always coming and going, especially in the middle of the Middle Ages. Oriental mental images, albeit in a highly decadent state, were brought over to Europe. And those who had perhaps never been to the Orient themselves, but had only traded with people from the Orient, brought not only spices and seasonings into people's homes, but also intellectual life. However, this was usually something that was nuanced from the Oriental. This trend spread throughout Europe. Its effects were felt less by those who spread education in the Latin language and much more by those who understood nothing of Latin, who were among the broad masses of the people. Among the townspeople and the villagers who remained outside, a lively spiritual exchange with the Orient took root. And it was not just adventurous stories that took root there, it was a spiritual life that deeply moved people. And if you want to understand figures such as Jakob Böhme, Paracelsus, and many others who came later, then you must take into account that they emerged from those masses of people who had developed without an understanding of Latin education, which went over their heads, but who were permeated in a certain way by the Orient. Everything that had developed there as folk alchemy, astrology, and interpretation of life in general had flowed together from what I described earlier as the inner experiences of human beings, the riddles they told in waking dreams, and from what had been carried over from decadent Oriental spiritual life.
Within the Latin character, nothing that wanted to think had been able to assert itself. One might say that Aristotle's logic appeared like a meteor. We see little of this logic in Augustine. People turned away from Greek culture altogether in the 4th century, and later the Emperor Justinian closed the school of philosophy in Athens, contributing to the condemnation as a heretic of Origen, who brought much of Oriental education and former intellectual life into Christianity. The Greek philosophers were expelled. What they had from Aristotle was carried over to Asia. The Greek philosophers found a home in Persia and established the Academy of Gondishapur in Asia, which was primarily concerned with permeating the old Oriental intellectual culture, which had already fallen into decadence, with Aristotelianism and shaping it into a completely new form. What was saved by this Academy of Gondishapur, which developed into a logical form of thought with tremendous speed, was Aristotelianism, which only then arose again in its own form. The Christians had not propagated it. In its own form, it entered Latin church life via detours through Africa, Spain, and Western Europe. And so we see in the West, particularly from this Gondishapur current, from this Arabism in a thoroughly philosophical form, in a form that carries a living worldview, but a very abstract one, influencing what, as I said, flows above our heads.
I have now characterized the two currents, one that took place above people's heads, the other that took place in their hearts and souls. They worked together, and it is extremely characteristic that a language in the process of dying out perpetuates the education of antiquity. Of course, what came through the Renaissance then flows into it. But I cannot present everything today. Essentially, I would like to stick to some of the main lines that are of particular interest to us. This existed side by side until well into the 15th century.
One might say that what was ancient thought, a thought that was still instilled, a thought that was half vision, was gradually clothed in abstract forms of language in what then emerged as Christian philosophy, as Christian intellectual life, as a worldview, carried through the schools, from which even the university system continued to grow. In this element, Romanism, antiquity, lived on in a grammatical and rhetorical way. It was not an intellectual element that lived on, but the garb of an intellectual element.However, in what was the popular current, the thought developed through subjective activity was born for the first time in the entire development of humanity. From this ghostly, magical, intuitive being, mixed with Orientalism, from this being, which lived out its life in interpreting natural facts, the thought was born, the active thought. And this birth of thought, I would say, out of a dreamy, mystical being, took place around the 15th century. But by then something else had already grown strong, which now, alongside the Roman priesthood, had clothed itself in Latin education, namely the Roman-legal nature.
In a particularly well-developed method, what had been a current passing through people's minds was able to spread everywhere, first in the village communities, then in the cities, and now, in the new era that dawned after the 15th century, it allied itself with a completely different current that was now emerging. Cities had already been established. In the cities, people were proud of their individuality and freedom. This can be seen in the portraits that have survived from this period and in many other things. But the village communities remained outside. Territorial principalities asserted themselves. Those in the villages who gradually came to oppose the cities found their leaders in people who wanted to take up their cause against the cities, or at least pretended to do so. And from the countryside, from the villages, the cities were incorporated into larger structures, into larger administrative structures, into which the Roman legal system then entered. The modern state emerged, this modern state that was formed from the rural communities, in that what conquered the cities from the countryside was permeated by what now emerged on Latin soil as the Roman legal system. Now this element was already so strong that nothing could prevail that still wanted to rise to the surface from the popular current, that emerged in the turbulent times, as they were called, among the rural population of England and Bohemia, for example, that emerged in Hussitism, in Wycliffism, that emerged in the Bohemian Brethren. None of this could arise. The only thing that could emerge was that essence which flowed together with the Roman essence, with the Roman administrative essence.
And so we see how what is the popular element, what actually conquered reality in people's minds, what asserted itself in resistance to the Roman-Latin essence, initially remained smoldering beneath the surface. We see how the spiritual life bursts forth from two sides. Nominalism developed from the Roman-Latin essence, for which general concepts are only names, as one had to think from grammar and rhetoric. Just as one could only arrive at nominalism, so a realism developed among those who still had a spark of folk spirit in them, such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, which perceived the intellectual element as something distinctly real. But at first, nominalism prevailed in a certain way. In the historical development of humanity, everything is necessary in a certain sense, and we see that the abstract element became all the more abstract as it was carried over into the 15th and 16th centuries by the dead element of Latin. 16th century, that it can then be fertilized by what has been born as thought, since it reckons with the birth of thought, but that it clothes thought in abstract formulas, in abstractions. And under this influence are the following centuries, the 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th centuries, under the influence of the idea born out of the ancient Gothic-Germanic essence, but clothed in Roman logical formulas, actually grammatical-rhetorical formulas, which, however, now that they had been fertilized by the idea, could be called logical formulas. This now became inner human thinking. People initially thought with this thinking, but it had no content in itself. All ancient worldviews brought with them, in their content, the secrets of the world to what was experienced inwardly. Even thoughts were still meaningful until the 4th century AD.
Then came the time that, in a sense, carried the future within it, in which what was already present at the outset, in rhetoric and grammar, and at most in dialectics, developed more and more in a dead language. This developed and was then fertilized by the power of thought that came up from below, and this is what man now seized upon, but which now had no content in itself. Realism was handed down, so to speak, but what was meant was nominalism, and people believed in nominalism, and with this nominalism they first conquered nature.
Through what actual Europe was able to bring forth in the manner described, thought as such, as inner soul life, as thinking power, was born, but it did not bring any content with it. This content must be sought outside. With this empty thinking, nature, external natural law, was conquered from the 15th century onwards. But in the middle of the 19th century, people began to realize: Yes, with your thinking you conquer what are natural laws, what is outside of you, but thinking itself cannot come from itself to anything. And so people gradually lived themselves into a mood that excluded from thinking everything that was not taken in from outside. On the other hand, they lived themselves into a religious faith that was supposed to have nothing to do with scientific knowledge, because thinking, which had become empty, was only allowed to be filled with external natural facts and entities. Faith had to be protected in its content because it was supposed to refer to the supernatural. But this empty thinking could refer to the sensual precisely because it produced no content itself. Faith, in turn, could only fill itself with the old traditions, with the content of the past Oriental culture that was being perpetuated.
It was the same with art. In earlier times, art was closely related to religion; religious ideas were expressed in works of art. Consider how the ideas of the Greek gods were expressed in the Greek dramatists and sculptors. Art is something that is part of the whole structure of the worldview, of spiritual life. The Renaissance already regarded art as something external.
In the 19th century, we see more and more how happy people are when art offers them something that is pure fantasy, something they do not have to cling to as reality, something that does not refer them to any reality.
Like individual modern hermits, I would say, such people stand there like Goethe, who says: “When nature begins to reveal its obvious secrets, one feels an irresistible longing for its most worthy interpreter, art.” “Beauty,” says Goethe, “is a manifestation of secret laws of nature that would have remained forever hidden from us without its appearance.” And it is strange how Goethe, in a different way from the others, wants to return to the past in order to find content in a time of empty understanding filled only with the external sensory world. He longs to return to Greece, to the Greek world. And when he senses an echo in Rome of what Greek art had achieved from the depths of its worldview, he writes: “There is necessity, there is God.” Art reveals to him what he wants to perceive as the spirituality of the world.But more and more, a dark, vague feeling arose: this way of thinking is suitable for the external world, but it is not suitable for producing inner spiritual content from itself. And so we see the second half of the 19th century unfold. I would like to say, as we hinted at yesterday, that the spirits of the first half of the 19th century — one need only look at Flegel or Saint-Simon or even Spencer — still believed that they could extract something from their spiritual experiences that could serve as a worldview or even as a social philosophy. People in the second half of the 19th century no longer believed this. But something remained of what had given birth to these ideas from the unconscious. Why did the premonitory dreams of villagers throughout Europe until the 12th century contain something of inner puzzle-solving, of inner wisdom that was applied to experiences in all kinds of mischievous riddles? Because it was during this period that thought, reflection, and intellectual work were born. That was what was initiated back then. And now we see how, in the second half of the 19th century, people finally despaired of thinking. We see declamations about the limits of natural knowledge popping up everywhere. And with the same rigidity and dogmatism with which the scholastics once spoke of reason's inability to penetrate the supersensible, Da Bois-Reymond, for example, spoke of scientific research's inability to penetrate the essence of matter and consciousness. I would say that in the past, the nature of the boundaries was related to the supernatural, but now it is related to what is supposed to lie behind the sensory. But we see the same phenomenon occurring in all kinds of other areas.
Ranke, the historian of the second half of the 19th century, is particularly characteristic in this regard. He once expressed himself as follows: History must investigate external events, even in the period when Christianity began to spread. One must look at what is happening externally in terms of political and social events and events in external cultural life. But Ranke attributes what happened before that in the course of human development through Christ to the primordial world, not in a temporal sense, but to the world that lies behind the investigable. We see that the natural scientist Du Bois-Reymond says Ignorabimus with regard to matter and consciousness. Natural science can go far, but what is there where matter haunts, what is there where consciousness arises, that is where Du Bois-Reymond places his seven world riddles, that is where he utters his Ignorabimus. And Leopold von Ranke, who works as a historian in the same spirit, says: Historical research can shed light on everything that exists and is accessible in documents, but behind what appears as external historical fact there are events that seem like the primeval world. What underlies history, just as for Du Bois-Reymond that which lies beyond the limits of natural knowledge, Ranke calls the primeval world. Therein lie the mysteries of Christ, there lie the religious mysteries of all peoples. There the historian says Ignorabimus. Ignorabimus, the natural scientist; ignorabimus, the historian: that is the mood of the entire intellectual life of the second half of the 19th century.Look wherever you perceive this intellectual life, even in Wagner's music, even in Nietzsche's priesthood, this mood appears everywhere. Some believe they must escape into certain musical dreams, others suffer from what is happening in the world of Ignorabimus. Agnosticism sets the tone, agnosticism becomes politics, becomes state-shaping. And if someone wants to do something positive, they do not rely on any form of Gnosticism, but on agnosticism. Marxism, as I said yesterday, relies like a strategist on the instincts it finds, not on what it wants to bring in from the supernatural. We see how spirituality is being suppressed everywhere, how agnosticism is shaping reality.
This is how one must understand modern intellectual life. It can only be interpreted correctly if one derives it from its origins in the 4th century AD, if one knows that this is where the form arises, what later lives on as nominalism, what emerges as a mere legal and logical form, and the idea is born in the way I have shown. However, this idea is still only born to the extent that formalism and empty thinking can use it. It slumbers in the depths of civilized humanity. It must rise to the surface.
This is what a true view of history teaches us when we shine the light of spiritual research into what has been before the eyes of humanity from the 4th century to the present day. Then we can know what is at the top. Admittedly, the idea has become fruitful in natural science because it has been fertilized as an idea born in the manner described above from the power of thought inherent in human nature. But now, in this time of misery, in this time of need, humanity must remember that the idea that was initially allowed only to fertilize formalism, that was allowed only to fertilize as a force the empty thinking that takes in knowledge of nature from outside, this idea that has found its expression in scientific and historical agnosticism, this idea must become powerful in itself, must once again become visible, must rise to supersensible worlds. That this idea exists, that this idea has already created scientific knowledge, but that its real power still lies deep in the consciousness of human development, must be recognized as a historical fact. Then we will gain confidence in the inner power of spirituality, then we will turn toward spirituality; then we will establish a spiritual science not out of nebulous mysticism, but out of the clarity of thought, a spiritual science that can also be active in thought, that can have an effect on social and other human institutions. It is always said that history should be our teacher. History cannot be our teacher by showing us the old past, but by enabling us to discover something new from the depths of existence. It is this new thing, this new way of seeing, that is sought by what wants to emerge from this place. And this can be justified not only by proclaiming the method of the humanities, but also by a correct historical perspective.
I wanted to hint at this with a few lines. I hope that these things can be explained in more detail later. Natural science and the world historical development of humanity since ancient times