The Rudolf Steiner Archive

History of the Middle Ages Up to the Great Inventions and Discoveries IX

[ 1 ] We have seen how life in medieval cities developed.

[ 2 ] We have reached a point where public life takes place mainly in cities. Originally, the motivation for settling in cities was the oppression of rural people and the expansion of trade.

[ 3 ] We have seen how those who had fled their oppressors or turned to trade settled either in a bishopric or at some other seat of medieval power. At first, the segment of the population that lived in the cities was not in a comfortable situation; they had to pay taxes to their former landlords and supply weapons, clothing, and so on. Those who had moved to the cities and devoted themselves to trade, as well as those who were royal, episcopal, or other officials, initially formed the truly free, privileged classes. But increasingly, the privileges of the officials and merchants—who made up the patriciate—were taken away from the privileged class by those who lived under oppression. Along the Rhine in southern Germany, this equality was achieved in the 13th and 14th centuries. Kings and emperors took this into account.

[ 4 ] In the past, the wandering kings had held court here and there; now they settled in the cities. The rulers had to reckon with the cities; they found in them a basis for the expansion of their own power. Consequently, certain rights—jurisdiction, the right to mint coins, and so on—were granted to the cities. In this way, their power grew steadily. A democratic element thus began to take shape in Germany. Previously, the landed nobility—the feudal nobility of the time—had left its distinct mark on the country. Instead, something new has now emerged. Privileges were increasingly being abolished in the cities. Rather than making general observations, let us turn to specific examples. Cologne had long been an important trading city and the seat of a powerful clergy; indeed, the cities were also becoming a force in the intellectual sphere. There, the lower classes had soon secured equal rights with the patriciate—a kind of constitution, the Eidbuch, which set forth the rights of each individual. The guilds—of which there were twenty-two in Cologne—had united; prior to the 14th century, they too had been dependent on the patricians here. Now, in the year 1321, they achieved equal rights.

[ 5 ] The city council was not composed solely of patricians; members of the guilds also had equal voting rights. To make this council as democratic as possible, members were to be elected for only half a year at a time and were subsequently ineligible for election for three years. As this democratic principle was put into practice, individual citizens’ interest in the cities’ prosperity also grew. Until well into the 12th century, such cities were little more than dirty villages with thatched-roof houses. But within a few years, we see them grow in a truly remarkable way. Every man is now a citizen, and with the participation of each individual, the city’s prestige and beauty flourish.

[ 6 ] The positions taken by the cities also had a decisive influence on high politics as a whole. Why would cities like Hamburg, Lübeck, and Cologne be politically interested in what kings and dukes were doing out there? When the cities began to engage in politics, they did so in their own way. Vast regions formed alliances to safeguard their urban interests. Such powerful city alliances first emerged in northern Germany; later, the cities of northern Italy formed similar alliances. The German cities also gained significant influence far beyond their borders; in Bergen and London, they maintained their powerful guild houses.

[ 7 ] Just as the princes were compelled to grant the cities the right to pursue such a policy, the cities gradually became the center of a new culture—admittedly a material culture, but one that led to the settlement of vast territories. New cultural centers emerged, where lively trade with the northern lands—especially with Russia—flourished; the legendary Vineta was one such trading hub. We see how trade policy developed, with powerful trade routes emerging along the Rhine, through northern and central Germany, featuring important trading cities such as Magdeburg, Hildesheim, Erfurt, Breslau, and so on. From these city alliances emerged what is known as the Hanseatic League. Over time, it had become necessary to pursue not only trade policy but also military strategy. Enemies lurked in the background—knights and dukes who jealously watched the cities’ development. The cities had to surround themselves with walls and defend themselves against their enemies. Thus, they increasingly became powerful centers of culture, as well as hubs of intellectual life. Whatever had a sense of intellectual life in that era converged in the cities. Art, too, flourished in the medieval cities under the influence of the free bourgeoisie. In Venice, the Hall of the Clothmakers was painted by Titian.

[ 8 ] A new form of warfare also emerged. The use of gunpowder—which had been known in the East for some time but was only now being rediscovered in Europe—gave rise to a new, democratic form of combat, in contrast to the one-on-one duels of armored knights. The use of gunpowder continued to evolve. At first, there were crude muskets and mortars, but soon more sophisticated weapons were invented, particularly by Kaspar Zöllner in Vienna.

[ 9 ] What developed, particularly in the cities, in connection with the spirit of church life is of special importance for cultural progress. We have seen how the highest ecstasy of religious fervor manifested itself during the Crusades. We have seen how German mysticism flourished, particularly along the Rhine, and how the Brothers of the Common Life cultivated a deep piety entirely independent of Rome. Two distinct currents of the times now confront us: on the one hand, the citizen is focused on improving material life; on the other hand, we see here a spiritual life turned inward. In the early Middle Ages, material and spiritual life were closely intertwined; the peasant believed that the Church fostered and blessed both the flourishing of his material life and his religious sensibilities. Now that personal competence had come to the fore, these two paths diverged.

[ 10 ] The distinctive architectural style of the Middle Ages, erroneously called Gothic, originated in southern France, in regions where devout heretics such as the Cathars and the Waldensians lived, who sought to deepen their inner lives and break with the lavish lifestyle of the bishops and the clergy. A distinctive spiritual life spread from there; German mysticism was strongly influenced by it.

[ 11 ] The profound influence this mindset had on the external appearance of these churches is evident from the fact that all of these Gothic cathedrals were adorned with mystical motifs in their marvelous stained-glass windows. This art, which was completely lost in the 17th century, was not merely artistic allegory; rather, the symbols depicted there truly exerted a mystical influence on the crowd when sunlight shone through them into the dim, high-ceilinged churches. This architectural style was closely tied to the conditions of medieval cities; the town hall and the guild hall were also built in the Gothic style. The city, which was surrounded by walls, was forced to expand within those walls, and the Romanesque architectural style was insufficient for this purpose. Thus arose the soaring Gothic churches, an expression at the same time of the introspection of life at that time; the dances of death that frequently adorn them served as a stark reminder of the transience of all earthly things.

[ 12 ] In their concern for the cleanliness and beauty of their city, the citizens found a noble way to ensure their names would be remembered by their fellow citizens. In particular, beautiful fountains were erected everywhere. We see that something was emerging at that time that would take on special significance in the Middle Ages: public baths, which were found in every city. In the later Middle Ages, these baths gave rise to moral excesses and were therefore eradicated by Protestantism. Yet this civic spirit went even further; it influenced public life by creating charitable institutions that can still serve as models today. And these charitable institutions became urgently necessary, for in the 14th century, Europe was ravaged by severe plagues, famines, leprosy, the plague, or, as it was called at the time, “the Black Death.” But people in the Middle Ages knew how to cope with these challenges. Infirmaries, hospitals, and almshouses sprang up everywhere, and even strangers were cared for through what were known as “hostels for the destitute.” At that time, “destitute” was synonymous with “stranger” and only later took on a different meaning.

[ 13 ] Alongside these bright aspects of medieval life, there were, of course, many dark ones as well. Above all, there was the harsh treatment of all those who did not belong to a established community. They were outcasts, a burden the cities would not bear. All those who did not belong to a guild had to endure mistreatment. This was especially true of the “traveling people.” The term “dishonest people” originated at that time—a terrible label for the traveling people. A wide variety of professions were classified as “dishonest people,” including actors, jugglers, shepherds, and so on. They were barred from joining the guilds and could not show themselves anywhere without running the risk of being tormented. The Jews fared no better. Prejudice against them is not very old. In the early Middle Ages, we find many Jews recognized as scholars. In later times, they met the financial needs of princes and knights. Due to the peculiar circumstances of the Middle Ages, they rose to the position of moneylenders, a role that straddled the line between trade and usury and earned them hatred. Yet the kings’ financial straits repeatedly granted them certain rights; this activity earned them the peculiar title of “royal chamberlains.” Another dark side was the judicial system, the criminal law that necessarily emerged with the Middle Ages. In earlier times, justice was truly akin to revenge: either a wrong had to be righted, or revenge simply had to be taken. The concept of punishment did not exist; it was only now emerging. Roman legal concepts were becoming established. Judicial authority was a valuable privilege of a city, and the citizens were proud not only of their churches and walls but also of their high court. Often, the harshest punishments were imposed for the most trivial of reasons.

[ 14 ] Thus, the 15th and 16th centuries of medieval life were shaped by urban life. Another current ran parallel to this. What we today understand as “high politics” was connected to this other current. This is the movement known as that of the heretics or Cathars. You can gauge the extent to which this movement grew by considering the fact that in 13th-century Italy, there were more heretics than orthodox believers.

[ 15 ] This was also the root of the conflict that led to the Crusades. When the decision to launch the Crusades was made at the Council of Clermont in 1095, it was not only the rabble—no, it was also decent people—who set out in disorderly crowds under Peter of Amiens and the knight Walter of Habenichts for the Promised Land. It was a papal undertaking; it did not arise solely out of enthusiasm. It was a response to the threat to papal influence posed by the heretics. The pope’s aim—which was indeed achieved—was to create an outlet for the heretics.

[ 16 ] In the first true Crusade, it was largely heretics who set out. This is also evident from the character of their leader. Godfrey of Bouillon held decidedly anti-papal views, as his past life shows. For when, at the instigation of Pope Gregory, a rival king—in the person of Duke Rudolf of Swabia—was put forward against Henry IV, Godfrey of Bouillon fought on the side of Emperor Henry and killed Rudolf of Swabia. One must understand what was at stake for him—though it never came to fruition: to establish an “anti-Rome” in Jerusalem. That is why he called himself merely the “Protector of the Holy Sepulcher” and sought, with unassuming modesty, to raise the banner of anti-Roman Christianity in Jerusalem. After the Crusades, the Ghibelline party emerged from among the proponents of such views; opposing them, on the side of the Pope, were the Guelphs.

[ 17 ] Even when considering the Second Crusade, which Emperor Conrad III undertook in 1147 at the instigation of Bernard of Clairvaux, we see the same phenomena. These crusades had no further significance in and of themselves; they merely demonstrated the spirit that was sweeping through the world. Barbarossa, who undertook five campaigns against the Pope and the northern Italian cities that sided with him in order to subdue them, was forced to grant them independence in the Peace of Constance after he failed to capture their fortress of Alessandria.

[ 18 ] The German papal party consisted primarily of the princely families that had survived from the old nobility. Henry the Proud and his son Henry the Lion fought for the old ducal power against imperial authority. Typically, these recalcitrant princes were then bound to imperial authority through marriage to an imperial daughter. By enfeoffing relatives of the emperor with vacant duchies, such shifts in the balance of power were repeatedly brought about thereafter.

[ 19 ] Emperor Frederick Barbarossa undertook the Third Crusade, which also failed to achieve any real success, but which became significant because of the Kyffhäuser legend associated with it. Anyone familiar with legends knows that this is one of the most important ones. It did not spring from the collective consciousness, as is commonly claimed, for it was composed by a single individual, and what he created then spread among the people—just as happens with folk songs, which professors claim arise directly from the people and do not originate in the minds of individuals. The legend arose from the mind of a person who understood how to use symbols that had deep meaning, such as the cave in the Kyffhäuser, the ravens, and so on. It is one of the legends found throughout the world, proof that something similar exists everywhere.

[ 20 ] The Barbarossa legend is a legend of great cultural and historical significance. — Within the Church, Rome was the advocate of what emerged from the external trappings imposed on the Germanic spirit in conjunction with Christianity. — The emperor was said to be hidden in a grotto. Since ancient times, grottoes have been secret places of worship. Thus, the cult of Mithras was generally practiced in grottoes. In this worship, Mithras was depicted riding a bull, the symbol of the lower animal nature that was overcome by Mithras, the predecessor of Christ. In the Kyffhäuser legend, the emperor hidden in the rock grotto became the champion of that which, in the German soul, turned against Rome and its influence. How much meaning lies in this legend! A pure Christianity, longed for by many at that time, was to emerge from its hiding place when the time came.

[ 21 ] The Mongol invasion that ravaged Europe took place during the reign of the Staufen Emperor Frederick II. I do not intend to give you a history of the Hohenstaufen dynasty here, but merely to point out what developed as a result of the Crusades: expanded trade relations and a revival of the sciences and arts through contact with the East. The crusaders brought home with them the new experiences and goods they had acquired.

[ 22 ] It was also during this time that the two great monastic orders were founded, which came to play a particularly significant role in spiritual life: the Dominicans and the Franciscans. The Dominicans represented the intellectual movement known as Realism, while the Franciscans leaned toward Nominalism. The Holy Land also saw the founding of the spiritual orders of knights; the Order of St. John was initially established to provide medical care.

[ 23 ] The second order of knights, the Knights Templar, emerged from a spirit similar to the one I described to you as that of Godfrey of Bouillon. Its true objectives were kept secret, but through its inner circle of agitators, the order soon became very powerful. An anti-Roman principle prevailed within it, as was also evident among the Dominicans, who often found themselves in complete opposition to Rome; for example, they fiercely opposed the Pope regarding the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. The Knights Templar sought to purify Christianity. Invoking John the Baptist, they espoused an ascetic tendency. Their liturgical practices, born of resistance to Roman secularization, were so hostile to the Church that even today it is still not acceptable to speak of them publicly. The Order’s power had made it a major thorn in the side of the clergy and the princes; it suffered severe persecution and ultimately perished after its last Grand Master, Jacques de Molay, was martyred along with a number of his fellow brothers in 1314.

[ 24 ] The “Teutonic Order” also had similar origins. Together with the Order of the Sword Brothers, which joined it, it made it its special mission to convert the regions of Europe that had remained pagan, particularly in the East, from its headquarters in Marienburg. Contemporary accounts paint a remarkable picture of the inhabitants of the regions that today constitute the provinces of East and West Prussia. Albert of Bremen describes the ancient Prussians as complete pagans. Among this people—of whom it is not precisely known whether they were of Germanic or Slavic descent—the ancient pagan customs of eating horse meat and drinking horse blood were still practiced. The chronicler describes them as pagan and cruel people.

[ 25 ] Before they came into contact with the German knights, the Sword Brothers had sought secular power in particular.

[ 26 ] One can only speculate about how this development unfolded. Although cities had emerged, some of the ducal authority and the practice of robber barons had persisted. It was not enthusiasm for Christianity, but mere self-interest, that caused the remnants of the feudal nobility to band together in these two German orders of knights. In these regions, the cities had no significant influence. The other two Christian orders were alliances of those who were not affiliated with Rome. If one examines the historical sources, one will often find alliances between them and the cities.

[ 27 ] Alongside these two trends—urban development and a deepening of religious life—we see that imperial authority lost all significance. From 1254 to 1273, there was no holder of imperial authority in Germany; the imperial title had at times been sold to foreign princes, one of whom, Richard of Cornwall, visited Germany only twice, while the other, Alfonso of Castile, never set foot there at all.

[ 28 ] When a proper imperial election was finally held again, the aim was not to establish some sort of imperial central authority or to make another attempt to create an imperial power; rather, the decisive factor was the desire to bring order to the problem of robber barons.

[ 29 ] Thus, Count Rudolf of Habsburg was elected. If one were to ask what he and his successors did for the empire, it would be difficult to say, for they were not active in public affairs. They were occupied with establishing their family’s power base. Thus, after the death of Duke Heinrich Jasomirgott, Rudolf of Habsburg granted Lower Austria to his son, thereby establishing the Habsburg family’s power base. His successors sought to expand this power through conquests and, in particular, through marriage alliances, and no longer concerned themselves with anything related to the common good.

[ 30 ] You can see what was truly significant for further development: the events that shaped medieval conditions in a way that ultimately led to the great discoveries and inventions at the end of the Middle Ages. We see the cities with a culture that is powerfully rising but secularized; in the Church, we see the schism, the split; out of this current, the final act of the medieval drama begins; we see the twilight of the Middle Ages and the dawn of a new era.