The Rudolf Steiner Archive

Twelfth Lecture

[ 1 ] Dr. Steiner: Does anyone here have a question they'd like to ask?

Questions regarding the effects of alcohol, its harmful effects, and so on.

[ 2 ] You mean, in what ways is alcohol harmful to health at all?

[ 3 ] Well, isn’t it true that with alcohol, you can quite clearly see its initial effect in that it acts precisely on that aspect of the human being we have been describing all along: the entire state of the soul. The first thing is that alcohol plunges a person into a kind of mental confusion that is so powerful that, above all, the person is then exposed to passions that are otherwise weak within them and can be more easily suppressed by the intellect—so that when they haven’t drunk alcohol, they appear more reasonable than they do when they have. Then, alcohol initially stimulates the blood, leading to increased blood circulation. That is the first effect; it stirs up the emotional life. For example, a person becomes angry more easily, whereas otherwise they can more easily suppress that anger. So you see, the first effect of alcohol is the one exerted on a person’s intellectual life and, indeed, on their entire soul life.

[ 4 ] Once the alcohol has remained in the body for a while, it causes a condition that you know very well—one called a hangover. But it is precisely from the onset of a hangover that you can see that alcohol initially has the effect of causing the entire body to resist it. What does it mean when a person has a hangover? It means nothing other than that, because the person was, say, drunk the previous evening—the hangover usually occurs in the morning after the person was drunk the night before—and their blood was in a state of particularly intense circulation, they have expended a great deal of energy; this energy was expended because they rapidly set their body in motion, whereas otherwise the same movements would have taken place much more slowly.

[ 5 ] So keep this point clearly in mind. Suppose the body needs to perform a certain activity within twenty-four hours. If someone drinks a fair amount of alcohol, that same activity might even be completed in as little as twelve or six hours. In doing so, the body deprives itself of its internal processes. That is why people who are accustomed to getting a little tipsy now and then instinctively eat a hearty meal afterward, before the hangover sets in. Why do they do that? Well, if they eat a hearty meal, either the hangover is avoided entirely—it doesn’t come at all—or at least it’s milder, so that they can work the next day.

[ 6 ] So what happens if someone has had a few drinks and feels a bit tipsy, and then, let’s say, eats a bratwurst? Then he gets his body going again and replenishes what was used up by the rapid activity. But if a person doesn’t do that—that is, if he isn’t already a fairly hardened drinker (since hardened drinkers do just that)—and instead forgets to eat the bratwurst, then he gets a hangover, for the reason that his body is then no longer able to carry out higher internal functions. But if this activity is not carried out properly, waste products—namely uric acid products—accumulate everywhere. They accumulate especially in the head, because that is the hardest part of the body to supply. And so a person who has exhausted his physical activity—his internal physical activity—during the night by drinking alcohol goes about the next morning in such a state that his head is actually like his intestines usually are: waste is deposited inside. And this means that the body immediately rebels when too much activity is demanded of it through alcohol consumption.

[ 7 ] Now, the fact is—as I’ve already told you during my lectures—that people can actually handle much more—and I don’t mean in terms of alcohol, but in general—much more than is usually assumed. This is because it can be balanced out over a long period of time. And you’ll even find a very deceptive, very suspicious remedy for a hangover in some people. When they get up the next morning with a massive hangover or come home—what do they do then? Well, you’ve probably seen this yourself: they just keep drinking the next morning; they turn their morning drink into a special “cure,” and then they keep drinking.

[ 8 ] And why is it that they then continue drinking? Well, you see, the body has been deprived of activity during the night because the blood has been set into a state of agitation. Now this activity is missing in the morning. But the body is stirred up once again by continued drinking, so that the last remnants of activity it still possesses are also used up. Because these last remnants clear away the bulk of the waste products, the hangover subsides to a certain extent in the head, but remains all the more present in the rest of the body. However, people are less aware of what remains in the rest of the body. Thus, continuing to drink in the morning actually causes the hangover to unconsciously spread to the rest of the body. And only when that happens does the real misery for the body begin. The worst-off are those drinkers who try to chase away their hangover by drinking more. Because then, little by little, as this repeats itself, the entire body is ruined.

[ 9 ] But it is still the case that—precisely because the human body can withstand a great deal—it is almost impossible to ruin the body right away. That is why the first thing that happens to a true drunkard is that he enters a kind of delirium, the madness of drunkenness. It hasn’t reached the point of ruin yet. When this so-called delirium tremens—as it’s called in medicine—sets in, people see all sorts of animals running around everywhere—mice and so on. They develop a kind of persecution complex. Delirium tremens is, after all, associated with people feeling persecuted everywhere by small animals, mice in particular. This has even become part of history. There are “mouse towers.” They usually get their name from the fact that, in earlier times, someone suffering from alcohol-induced delirium was locked up there and tormented by mice—which he had only created as a mental image, though there may well have been some inside as well—because the person inside saw thousands upon thousands of mice all around him, everywhere, even though they weren’t really there.

[ 10 ] So you see, it is actually very difficult to force what happens inside a person when they ruin themselves with alcohol all the way into the body. The body resists for quite a long time what alcohol does to it.

[ 11 ] And the interesting thing is that people’s consciences then start to stir. Let’s say they’ve been drinking for a while, kept drinking early in the morning, and then suddenly their conscience stirs and they stop drinking; they’ve saved up just enough energy to be able to stop now. What happens then? If they hadn’t yet developed the madness of a drunkard, they get it then. That is the most interesting fact: that sometimes the person who has been drinking for a long time, when he stops drinking, is the one who develops the madness of a drunkard.

[ 12 ] This is one of the most important indications that human beings must be viewed in such a way that the head functions differently—I have cited this to you in previous lectures in connection with many things—than the rest of the body. For as long as a person harbors the disease of alcoholism in the head, they are still doing reasonably well; the condition has not yet spread to the rest of the body. But once it has spread and they subsequently give up alcohol, the rest of the body rebels all the more through the head, and it is precisely through this process of giving up alcohol that they develop the madness of alcoholism.

[ 13 ] So one could say: Human blood contains the physical counterpart to the soul’s most important functions. You may know that some people suffer from paranoia, seeing all sorts of figures that aren’t really there. In earlier times, in particular—and it was actually a quite healthy treatment—they would have them bled. One must not assume that people in the past were as superstitious as is commonly believed today. Bloodletting is not something that stemmed from superstition. They were treated by bloodletting; specifically, leeches were applied to them, which drew off their blood. This caused the blood to become less active. Not exactly in the case of alcoholics, but in other cases of madness, the blood became less active. Then they felt better.

[ 14 ] I have, of course, also mentioned to you the nervous system, which is closely related to all that constitutes the foundation of human psychological qualities; however, it is far less important, particularly for the human will; it is important for the intellect, but it is far less important for the human will than the blood.

[ 15 ] Well, if you observe that alcohol attacks the blood in the most profound sense, it follows that the blood is very well protected against it—precisely because the body reacts so strongly against the damage caused by alcohol. The blood is truly extraordinarily well protected against the attacks of alcohol in humans. And so we must ask ourselves: What is it that actually makes the blood in humans so extraordinarily well protected against these attacks? We must ask further: Where do the most important substances found in the blood actually originate?

[ 16 ] Remember, I told you: Blood consists of red blood cells, which contain iron and float around in what is called blood serum, and then it consists of white blood cells. I told you that the most important components of blood are red and white blood cells—we’re not going to consider those blood cells related to spleen activity, which we called “regulators” during our research in Stuttgart. There are, of course, many types of cells in the blood; but for now, let’s focus only on the red and white blood cells and ask ourselves: Where in the body are these blood cells actually produced? Well, you see, these blood cells are produced in a very special place. If you picture a thigh bone here, extending from the pelvis to the knee—or any bone, such as an arm bone or any hollow bone—you will find what is called bone marrow throughout the inside of that bone. That’s where the marrow is—the bone marrow. And you see, gentlemen, it is in this bone marrow that the red and white blood cells are produced and then enter the blood vessels. The human body is organized in such a way that its blood is produced in the inner cavities of its bones—which is actually the most important thing in it.

[ 17 ] If that is the case, then you can tell yourself: The blood is, in its production, truly exceptionally well protected against destruction, for one would actually have to consume alcohol for a very long time—and in very excessive amounts—for it to damage the bones to the point where it penetrates to their very core, into their marrow, and destroys them there, ruining the bone marrow so that no more red and white blood cells are produced. And it is only then—when alcohol has penetrated as far as the bone marrow—that the truly destructive consequences begin for people who consume alcohol.

[ 18 ] Now, while people are in many ways alike in terms of their intellect and their psychological characteristics, they are very different from one another—men and women—in terms of their blood. This is an unconscious difference, but one that becomes very clearly apparent. Namely, the blood cells produced inside the bone marrow—that is, the red blood cells and the white blood cells—have such an influence on human beings that the red blood cells are more important in women, while the white blood cells are more important in men. This is very important: the red blood cells are more important in women, and the white blood cells are more important in men.

[ 19 ] Here’s why: As you know, a woman has her period every four weeks, which essentially consists of the human body expelling something that needs to be expelled—namely, red blood cells. Men do not have periods, and as you know, male semen is such that it does not directly reveal its origin in red blood cells. It derives from white blood cells. These undergo many transformations, but ultimately become what is most important in male semen. Thus, when it comes to human reproduction, we must go as far as the protected bone marrow if we are to examine at all what can physically influence human reproductive capacity. Human reproductive capacity can indeed be physically influenced by the bone marrow inside the bones.

[ 20 ] But of course, once red and white blood cells are produced inside the bones, they enter the bloodstream. When a woman drinks alcohol, the red blood cells are particularly affected. Red blood cells contain iron; they are somewhat heavy and carry within them the heaviness of the earth. So when a woman drinks excessively, she causes too much heaviness to accumulate within her. The result is that when a woman drinks excessively, the child she is carrying becomes too heavy, meaning its internal organs cannot develop properly. It is not fully formed internally; its internal organs are not functioning properly. And this, gentlemen, is the indirect way in which alcohol exerts its harmful influence on a woman.

[ 21 ] In men, alcohol primarily affects the white blood cells. And if fertilization occurs under the influence of alcohol—or, more generally, under the influence of a body contaminated by alcohol—the sperm is damaged in such a way that it becomes too restless. For fertilization occurs when this tiny egg is released from the mother’s body. You can only see this under a microscope in the state it’s in when fertilization takes place. So the egg is released. The man releases a whole host of such sperm cells; they all have a tail-like filament attached to them. There are countless such sperm cells in the seminal fluid. And this tail-like filament they have is a cilia. And because of this cilia, these sperm cells are incredibly active anyway. They make the most complicated movements, and of course, one must reach the female egg first. The one that arrives first is taken in by the female egg. It is much smaller than the female egg; even though the female egg can only be seen under a microscope, the male sperm cell is still much smaller. It is taken in. And the moment it is absorbed into the egg, a membrane immediately forms around the egg, and all those that follow are repelled by this membrane. Only one can enter. For as soon as one is inside, a membrane forms around the egg, and the others must withdraw.

[ 22 ] So you see, this is ingeniously designed. Now, these sperm cells are extremely restless by nature. But alcohol makes them even more restless. Thus, fertilization occurs under the influence of the male sperm, which is extremely mobile. And the consequence of this is that, in humans, fertilization has a particular effect on the nervous system and sensory system when the man drinks. So that when the woman drinks, her internal organs are ruined by the burden; when the man drinks, the child’s nervous system is ruined. The entire activity that should be functioning properly as the child grows up is ruined.

[ 23 ] So one can say: Through the woman, the earthly aspect of the human being is ruined when she drinks, and through the man, when he drinks, the mobile, the ethereal—that which surrounds the Earth and which the human being also carries within—is ruined. Thus, the fruit is ruined from two different sides when both drink. Of course, in that case there is certainly no proper fertilization—that is to say, fertilization is indeed possible, but proper growth of the fruit is truly impossible. For on the one hand, the egg then seeks to assert its heaviness, and on the other hand, everything inside is in a state of restless agitation, and the two contradict one another. The masculine contradicts the feminine in such a fertilization, where both are drinking. So it is clear to anyone who understands the whole context that, in the case of habitual drinkers, extraordinary harm actually enters the fetus. But people don’t believe this, because the influence of men’s and women’s drinking is, relatively speaking, not yet that visible. But this is precisely because the blood is so well protected—it is even produced deep within the bone marrow—so people have to go to great lengths if they want to significantly influence their offspring. And people today simply do not admit to this subtle influence.

[ 24 ] Isn’t it true that when a child is born with hydrocephalus, one does not usually investigate whether conception occurred on the very night after the mother attended a dinner party and drank red wine there—even though it would become clear if one were to investigate, because the severity of the condition would be too great. Then the child is born with hydrocephalus. If, on the other hand, the child is born with a facial twitch, then again, people don’t investigate whether the man perhaps drank too much that evening. The things that are, shall I say, minor—those are simply not investigated. And that is why people believe there is no influence. It has always been there. But the truly harmful influences occur in habitual drinkers. And there, too, there is something conspicuous, something very peculiar.

[ 25 ] You see, if, for example, let’s say the man drinks, it may turn out that the children develop weaknesses somewhere in their nervous system and, let’s say, have a predisposition to tuberculosis. What is passed on to the children doesn’t necessarily have to be related to the man’s alcohol consumption. They don’t, for example, have to be predisposed to mental confusion, but rather to pulmonary tuberculosis or stomach upset and the like. So that’s precisely what’s so insidious—that the damage caused by alcohol simply transfers to entirely different parts of the human body.

[ 26 ] Now, when it comes to these matters, one really must always take into account just how great an influence even small amounts of substances have on human development in general. And not only that, but one must also consider in every instance how these substances are introduced into the human body. Consider the following, for example: We have a considerable amount of calcium phosphate in our bones. We also have phosphorus in our brains, and you will know from previous lectures that phosphorus is useful, because without it, we would not actually be able to use our brains for thinking. So we have phosphorus within us.

[ 27 ] I even told you once: Phosphorus is beneficial when it is ingested with food in the right amount, so that it is digested everywhere at the same rate that occurs naturally in the human body. If you put a large amount of phosphorus into a person’s stomach and it is absorbed quickly, then it is not beneficial—it is harmful.

[ 28 ] But there’s something else to consider. You know that phosphorus matches used to be made; they’ve become somewhat rarer now. But if you ever have the opportunity to observe something like this—as I did, for example, when I was a boy—you might experience the following: I had to walk an hour from our home to school every day when I was thirteen, fourteen, or fifteen years old, and halfway along the route there was a match factory. There, the workers were busy making matches—phosphorus matches. Yes, gentlemen, one witnessed that a number of these workers—this was in the 1870s—always walked around with their jaws eaten away; that is, their jaws were being eaten away, and from there their bodies were being destroyed. The bones began to be eaten away in the upper and lower jaws, but especially in the upper jaw.

[ 29 ] Anyone who knows what a harmful effect phosphorus can have on humans will find that such a fireworks factory is indeed one of the most deadly things one can imagine. When it comes to the products of human civilization, it is always necessary to consider the numerous harms that people can simultaneously suffer as a result. A number of these workers would always enter the match factory with their jaws clenched. That’s how it began. And then, didn’t it, it spread. Well, of course, the phosphorus was already present in the upper jaw as well. But what kind of phosphorus?

[ 30 ] You see, the phosphorus that first enters the stomach with food and then makes its way all the way from the inside to the jaws is not harmful unless it is consumed in excess. In contrast, matches are manufactured as follows: First, they are shaped into long sticks, and then they are cut into small sticks using cutting machines. Then they are clamped into frames, with a small piece sticking out, and they are first dipped into a sulfur bath and then into a phosphorus bath. The worker simply held this in his hand. So there were always splashes on the frames. Now think about how often a person, since they can’t always wash, simply wipes their face here or there while working. These are certainly extremely small amounts of phosphorus that come into contact with the person, but they do come into contact—not from the inside out, but from the outside in. And that is the secret of human nature: what can often be extremely beneficial when a person absorbs it from within and it is first processed by the body can be the greatest poison when it comes into contact with the body from the outside. You see, internally, the human organism is so wisely designed that it excretes excess phosphorus in the urine or feces. It allows only the small amount that is necessary to enter the bones. It eliminates what is superfluous.

[ 31 ] But people have no interest in filtering out what comes from the outside. Of course, one can help the process along. For example, one could bring about a great benefit simply by doing this—but just think how little attention was paid to humanity even in the 1970s! — one could already remedy the situation simply by setting up a hot bath that every worker would have to take before leaving. Such a facility would, of course, achieve an enormous amount. But things like that just aren’t done.

[ 32 ] Well, I just wanted to show you how the human body is designed—that it is designed in such a way that even very minor damage from external sources, even from the very substances it otherwise needs for its development, can lead to a situation where a person’s overall health—indeed, the entire human organism—is undermined.

[ 33 ] Humans can endure a great deal. But at a certain point, the organism breaks down. And when it comes to drinking alcohol, the organism breaks down at the very moment when the alcohol somehow prevents the life processes—the invisible life processes—from functioning properly.

[ 34 ] When a person is exposed to phosphorus poisoning, we know that the internal activity that normally processes the phosphorus is simply undermined; it is undermined from the outside. Well, with alcohol, it is actually—I would say—quite similar. With alcohol, it is this: When a person drinks too much alcohol, and drinks again and again, so that, as they say, alcohol consumption is not merely acute but becomes chronic, it reaches the point where the alcohol acts as alcohol within the person.

[ 35 ] But how does it actually act as alcohol? Well, I’d like to remind you that I once told you: the amount of alcohol a person needs, he produces himself. I told you: In the substances found in the intestines, a certain amount of alcohol is always produced by ordinary foods, because humans need these small amounts of alcohol. Why does the human body need this? Well, you need only recall, if you’ve ever been to an anatomy lab and seen the specimens: they’re preserved in alcohol because otherwise they would decompose. Alcohol prevents living tissue from decomposing. The alcohol produced within the human body itself acts in the same way in the human organism: it prevents the decay of certain substances that the human body needs. Thus, through its internal organization, the human body has essentially determined how much alcohol it needs, because it simply contains certain substances that would otherwise decay, but which must be present in the body and must therefore be preserved.

[ 36 ] But consider this: people drink too much alcohol. As a result, too much is retained—what should actually be eliminated is instead retained and preserved in the body! If a person repeatedly exposes the blood circulating in their body to alcohol, they end up retaining that blood inside the body. And what is the consequence? The consequence is that this blood clogs the channels in the bones because it counteracts the natural process. It is not expelled quickly enough through the pores and so on. It remains in the body for too long. As a result, the bone marrow inside the bone cavity is not stimulated enough to produce new blood and consequently weakens. What happens in the so-called chronic alcoholic is that the bone marrow weakens over time. And then it no longer produces the proper red blood cells in women, nor the proper white blood cells in men.

[ 37 ] You see, I have to say one thing time and again on such occasions: Isn’t it true that it’s all very well when people come up with social reforms—let’s say, for example, alcohol bans and so on? Certainly, it’s very well. But here’s what I mean: You see, even a learned man like Professor Benedikt—whom I once told you about, the one who collected the skulls of criminals, and about whom the Hungarian criminals said they didn’t want their skulls sent to Vienna because then they wouldn’t be reunited with the rest of their bones on Judgment Day—this man rightly said: Well, yes, people speak out against alcohol; but far more people have perished from water than from alcohol! — That is, of course, generally true as well, because water, when it contains impurities, occurs in much greater quantities; so that, if one looks at it purely statistically, one can naturally say: Far more people have perished from water than from alcohol.

[ 38 ] But there’s something else to consider. And here I’d like to say: With alcohol, it’s just like the story in *Leberecht Hühnchen*; I don’t know if you’re familiar with it. It’s the story of a poor wretch, a poor devil, who can only afford to buy one egg; but he has a vivid imagination when it comes to that egg, and so he thinks to himself: If this egg hadn’t been at the grocer’s, but had been properly incubated, it would have hatched into a hen. So if I eat this egg now, I’m actually eating the whole hen. In his imagination, he creates a mental image like this: “Well, I’m actually a real rich guy who can eat his own chicken!” — But his imagination still wasn’t satisfied with that; instead, he kept thinking. He said: “Yes, but the chicken I’m eating now could have laid so many eggs, from which more chickens could have hatched; and I’m eating all those chickens!” And finally, he calculated how many millions and millions of chickens that would be. Then he said to himself: “Wouldn’t that be wasteful?”

[ 39 ] You see, the story isn’t a joke like in this tale, but a serious matter when it comes to alcohol. Certainly, if one takes, say, the period from 1870 to 1880 and examines statistically how many people around the world died from water-related causes and how many from alcohol, then the number of people who died from water-related causes outweighs the other. Back then, people died of typhoid and such much more frequently than they do today; so typhoid can often be linked to water contamination. Yes, gentlemen, it’s easy to calculate that far more people perish from water.

[ 40 ] But we must think differently. We must realize that alcohol gradually penetrates into the bone marrow and gradually ruins the blood. Because it then ruins one’s offspring, the entire future family is ruined! So if a person has, say, three children, those three children are initially somewhat ruined; but those who are born of these three are severely ruined. And in this way, alcohol ruins people for generations to come. And much of the weakness found in humanity today exists simply because their ancestors drank too much. It really is the case that you have to create a mental image: There is a man and a woman. The man drinks heavily; as a result, their offspring are physically weak. Now just imagine what that means after a single century—or even after several centuries! So it’s no use simply looking at a specific time period, say from 1870 to 1880, and saying: more people died from dehydration than from alcohol. You have to look across long periods of time. And that’s what people today don’t like to do—at most just for fun, like the author of *Leberecht Hühnchen*, who of course also has to look across long periods of time if he wants to imagine how he’s slacking off.

[ 41 ] So, when thinking about this issue from a social perspective, one must have thoughts that look beyond the immediate. And there, I must say, my opinion is this: One can, of course, ban alcohol, but you see, then strange phenomena occur. You know, for example, that in many parts of the world today, people have come to restrict or completely ban the sale of alcohol; but I’d like to draw your attention to the evil that has emerged recently: namely, the use of cocaine, which people also use to numb themselves. And compared to the damage caused by cocaine use—specifically the destruction of human reproductive faculties—alcohol is still a blessing! Some who use cocaine won’t even hold it responsible for this. But even from the outward symptoms alone, you can see how much worse cocaine use is than alcohol consumption. When someone experiences delirium tremens from alcohol, it manifests as a kind of persecution delusion. They see mice everywhere, chasing after them. But when someone uses cocaine, snakes come out of their body from everywhere! When such a person who uses cocaine looks at himself, he sees: First he numbs himself—that’s pleasant, it’s a kind of sensual pleasure—but when he hasn’t used cocaine for a long time, he looks like this (see illustration on p. 225): snakes are coming out of his body everywhere, and he just runs quickly to take cocaine again so that the snakes will stop for a while. For the fear he has of the snakes is even greater than the fear he has of the mice during delirium tremens.

[ 42 ] And so, sure, you can ban all sorts of things, but then people will come up with all sorts of other things—which, as a rule, aren’t any smarter, but are actually worse. And that is why I believe that education about the effects of alcohol—in the way we have presented it here today, for example—can actually be far more effective, especially education that gradually leads people to give up alcohol on their own. It does not infringe on human freedom, but at the same time it causes people to say to themselves: “That’s terrifying! I’ll be ruined to the very core!” This then takes effect as a feeling, whereas laws appeal only to the intellect. The true truths, the true insights, are precisely those that penetrate deep into the feelings. That is why I am convinced that we can only achieve effective social reform—for the situation is similar in other areas, almost exactly as it is here—if we ensure genuine education reaches the widest possible circles.

[ 43 ] But this true enlightenment can only be achieved when there is something with which to enlighten. You see, if you attend a lecture somewhere today on the harmful effects of alcohol—you won’t find the issue presented the way I’ve just presented it to you, even though that isn’t particularly difficult; for people already know the facts. They simply don’t know how to think about these facts in the proper way. They already know the facts. They usually walk out of such a lecture—given by one of today’s run-of-the-mill scholars—and don’t really know what to make of it. And if they’re particularly good-natured, they’ll say: “Well, I guess I just wasn’t prepared; I didn’t understand the story.” The learned gentleman knows all of this. As an ordinary person, one cannot understand everything! But the reason is that he himself does not understand it. For if one has a science that truly goes down to the foundations, to the basics, then one can indeed make it understandable, even to ordinary people.

[ 44 ] If science today is so lacking in authenticity, it is precisely because it actually arose through the exclusion of true humanity. People always start out as private lecturers, then become associate professors, then full professors. The students then say: A full professor knows nothing extraordinary, and an associate professor knows nothing ordinary. — The students sense this, gentlemen. And so the whole shambles goes on. And when it comes to social reforms, science actually has no effect, even though it could have the most active impact. And that is why anyone who is sincere about social life must keep coming back to this point: Laws made of straw or paper are far less important—of course, we need them too—but they are far less important than a thorough enlightenment. That is the enlightenment we need. Only then would we really make progress.

[ 45 ] It’s exactly the kind of thing you can study—like with alcohol—and it’s something anyone can understand. And then you come to what I always tell people. Don’t you see, people come and ask: Is it better not to drink alcohol, or is it better to drink it? Is it better to be a vegetarian, or better to eat meat? I never tell anyone whether they should give up alcohol or drink it, or whether they should eat plants or meat; instead, I tell them: alcohol has such-and-such an effect. I simply explain to them how it works; then they can decide for themselves whether to drink or not. And that’s exactly how I handle the issue of eating plants and meat as well. I say: “This is how meat affects you, and this is how plants affect you.” And the result is that people can decide for themselves.

[ 46 ] That is what is needed above all else in science: respect for human freedom. So that one does not even have the feeling that one wants to command or forbid anyone to do anything, but rather simply states the facts. If they know how alcohol works, they’ll figure out for themselves what the right thing to do is. That’s how we’ll make the most progress. That’s how we’ll reach a point where free people can chart their own course. And that’s what we must strive for. Only then will we achieve true social reforms.

[ 47 ] If I'm there on Wednesday, we'll be able to have the next lecture.